Forest Certification Standards Research Articles

Remote measuring of the depth of wheel ruts in forest terrain using a drone

ABSTRACT Even at a well-managed harvesting site, vehicle trafficking occurs on at least 12% of the area and might cause ruts and compaction. The use of drones for inventory and mapping in forestry is still a new method. The purpose of this study was to develop a method for measuring the size and depth of wheel ruts caused by forest machines in harvested areas, using drones and Structure from Motion photogrammetry. In order to investigate the accuracy of drone photogrammetry, measurements from flight altitudes of 60 m and 120 m above ground level were compared with manual measurements. The same methods were used at a control site on farm land, taking into account the rut depth and the location of the sample surface (close to trees or in a fully open area). No statistically significant differences were found between manual measurements and remote measurements from 60 m or 120 m altitude at the harvesting site (R2 0.77–0.83). At the control site, an underestimation of 2.2 cm of the rut depth was found for remote measurements made from 120 m altitude. The data derived from drone images were able to reproduce the 3D model of surface features, such as bulges and ruts; these measurements were considered to be equivalent to manual measurements. For practical applications, a post-harvest survey using drones could contribute to verifying compliance with international forest certification standards or by private contractors to evaluate rut formation on their harvest sites.

The politics of scale in global governance: Do more stringent international forest certification standards protect local rights in Russia?

This paper interrogates how the increasing stringency of international rules on Free Prior and Informed Consent (FPIC), as reflected in the Forest Stewardship Council (FSC)’s certification standards, is shaping the rights afforded indigenous and local communities in Russia. Viewing the FSC as a ‘global governance generating network’ (GGN) that gains rule-making authority through diverse ‘forums of negotiation’ at multiple scales, we examine how international rules are negotiated and re-configured regarding 1) the ‘scope’ of requirements – who is included or excluded from FPIC and 2) ‘prescriptiveness' – the level and specificity of the rights afforded to FPIC holders.We find that Russian stakeholders perceive the increasing prescriptiveness of FSC's global FPIC policies as disrupting their existing norms of negotiated compromise, and originating from well-defined and politically influential indigenous populations elsewhere in the world. This has spurred intense debate on the scope of who should qualify for FPIC in Russia. While FSC-Russia's Social Chamber members have used formal standard-setting processes to negotiate for the increased stringency and scope of some FPIC requirements, industry-backed forums have inserted numerous exceptions, and drawn on external expertise and legal counsel to further restrict who counts as an FPIC rights-holder. These ongoing contestations highlight the risk that prescriptive international standards protecting local rights may narrow the scope of whose rights matter in their local implementation.

Assessment of forest industries compliance to forest certification standards in northwestern Russia

Assessment of forest industries compliance to forest certification standards in northwestern Russia

Predicting invasion risk of 16 species of eucalypts using a risk assessment protocol developed for Brazil

AbstractRisk analyses are predictive systems designed to detect the risk of invasion by non‐native species. Although eucalypts are often considered moderately invasive given the extent of cultivation on a global scale, some species are widely recognized as invasive for transforming and impacting natural areas in several countries. These problems may be due to propagule pressure derived from human interest in forest production and aesthetic values. Risk analyses were carried out for 16 eucalypt species cultivated in Brazil using a protocol adapted from an Australian model to Brazilian conditions. The species were: Corymbia citriodora, Corymbia maculata, Corymbia torelliana, Eucalyptus benthamii, Eucalyptus brassiana, Eucalyptus camaldulensis, Eucalyptus cloeziana, Eucalyptus dunnii, Eucalyptus globulus, Eucalyptus grandis, Eucalyptus pellita, Eucalyptus robusta, Eucalyptus saligna, Eucalyptus tereticornis, Eucalyptus urophylla and Eucalyptus viminalis. Results indicate high risk for seven species, moderate risk for eight species and low risk for one species. The only low risk species is E. dunnii, while the highest risk scores refer to C. torelliana, E. tereticornis and E. grandis. These results are consistent with the history of invasion of the species around the world and should be considered for plantations especially when investment capacity to prevent and permanently control spread is low or not associated with forest certification standards. Risk analysis is a valid tool for discriminating between species and making decisions on species to be introduced or cultivated. The results of this study show that there are many species that can be cultivated without incurring biological invasions.

Facing the complexities of the global timber trade regime: How do Chinese wood enterprises respond to international legality verification requirements, and what are the implications for regime effectiveness?

The emergence of transnational approaches to combat illegal logging and related trade through legality verification (LV) has spurred debate about the implications for the global timber trade regime. Scholars debate to what extent the various actors will support LV, and whether LV will undermine private forest certification and higher standards due to operators' venue shopping. This paper explores Chinese wood enterprises' responses and discusses the implications for regime effectiveness. Based on primary data from 158 questionnaires and secondary data we find that, although the majority of the sampled export-oriented Chinese companies have heard about LV requirements, only few have detailed knowledge. Furthermore, they look to their customers' different requirements, and therefore often apply multiple measures simultaneously rather than do venue shopping. The question whether LV will undermine standards and certification therefore to a high extent bounces back to customers and import authorities. On the other hand, the Chinese companies consider the complexities of the timber regime a major constraint for meeting customers' requirements and therefore for own uptake and support. There is hence a need to reduce complexity in order to ensure regime effectiveness. We suggest this is best achieved by increased transparency of and alignment between the various LV regulations.

African apes coexisting with logging: Comparing chimpanzee (Pan troglodytes troglodytes) and gorilla (Gorilla gorilla gorilla) resource needs and responses to forestry activities

The extraction of timber often conflicts with the well-being and conservation of wildlife. In particular, there is a need to better understand the impact of tree removal under selective logging regimes on local ecological communities. We conducted ape nest counts along line transects before, during, and after logging to assess the impact of timber harvesting and associated activities on sympatric chimpanzees and gorillas in a forestry concession in northern Republic of Congo. We used generalized linear models to relate ape nest counts to a set of predictor variables, representing the impact of logging and controlled for variation in environmental conditions including food availability, habitat and rainfall. Commercial forest inventory data were used to assess the baseline influence of food availability and forest structure on ape distribution. Higher numbers of chimpanzees were found in proximity to their preferred tree foods, whereas gorillas were associated with more heterogeneous habitats. Chimpanzee nest encounter rates decreased with increasing intensity of human impacts. Gorillas also avoided areas with active timber exploitation and roads, but were attracted to recently logged areas with abundant terrestrial herbaceous vegetation. Species-specific responses were consistent with theoretical predictions of niche partitioning and cumulative human influence. Based on these findings, we provide recommendations to improve existing guidelines and forest certification standards aimed at safeguarding ape populations.

Forest certification standards as a tool for environmental sustainability in wood building sector

The use of wood in the building sector is an effective way to fight against the worsening of the effects of green-house gas, in as much as it is the only construction material that, unlike all the others, absorbs harmful carbon dioxide from the air and only returns it after being burning it or being pulped. This study aims to highlight the peculiarities of wood and the environmental advantages linked to the use of this natural resource in the building sector, compared to traditional materials used in the construction industry, paying particular attention to the issue of environmental sustainability linked to the forests and to the most widespread certification schemes on the world scale, or rather the Forest Stewardship Council (FSC) and the Programme for Endorsement of Forest Certification Scheme (PEFC). Moreover, for each standard the technical and economic benefits deriving from the implementation of its systems of voluntary certification are underlined.

Forest certification as a policy option in conserving biodiversity: An empirical study of forest management in Tanzania

Forest certification management standards aim at maintaining forest ecosystem integrity, including forest biodiversity conservation. However, studies from the Amazon and Congo basin find that forest certification may not protect forest biodiversity and ecosystems, and may therefore be unsustainable. This study evaluates the influence of forest certification on conserving biodiversity. Specifically, we (a) estimate tree (adult and seedling) species richness, diversity and density among different forest management regimes; (b) assess the relationship between environmental and human forest use variables, and species richness, diversity and density among the forest management regimes; and (c) assess the influence of forest governance of villages adjacent to the forests on tree (adult and seedling) species richness, diversity and density among the forest management regimes. This is achieved in a comparative study of Forest Stewardship Council certified community forests, non-certified open access forests, and non-certified state forest reserves in the Kilwa District in Tanzania.Our results show that forest certification standards and implementation processes are positively related to biodiversity conservation. There are significantly higher tree (adults) species richness, diversity, and density in certified community forests than in open access forests and state forest reserves. These findings suggest that forest certification may be a good policy option to conserve biodiversity. The present study is one of the first studies in tropical Africa, which contributes to the limited data on the influence of forest certification on conserving biodiversity. Our results may also serve as baseline for further research on the contribution of certified forests in conserving biodiversity at both temporal and spatial scales.

Australian forest governance: a comparison of two certification schemes

Conflict over how forests should be managed has been a perennial feature of Australian environmental policy. In the early 2000s, these conflicts spilled over into a ‘certification war’ between two international forest certification standards – the Australian Forestry Standard, championed by industry and government, and the Forest Stewardship Council, championed by environmental civil society organisations. A key issue at stake in Australia's certification war is how similar or different the two schemes are. Building on the extensive literature on ‘new governance’, this article undertakes a systematic comparative analysis of the two schemes utilising a three-dimensional governance framework. The comparison reveals significant differences in the political, institutional and regulatory arrangements employed by each scheme.

Forest certification and green building standards: overview and use in the U.S. hardwood industry

Abstract The environmental movement has emerged as a response to society's concerns about the sustainability of Earth's natural resources and the effects of human activity on the environment and on society's well-being. Effects such as deforestation, air and water pollution, and resource depletion have shown to cause a decline in the quality of life of humans. In response, concerned citizens, non-governmental organizations, and governments have started initiatives to ensure the responsible utilization of our natural resources. Two of these initiatives in particular are relevant for U.S. hardwood products manufacturers: forest certification systems and green building standards. The former are standards created with the purpose of ensuring the sustainable utilization of the forest resource. Most forest certification systems also offer a chain-of-custody certification, to assure customers that label-carrying products indeed originate from certified forests. Green building standards were created to reduce the environmental impact caused by building construction and use. This paper presents the results from a survey of U.S. hardwood lumber manufacturers, with the objective of learning about the industry's awareness and perceptions about forest certification and green building systems and the impact of the environmental movement on the industry. Questions asked ranged from familiarity with different systems for forest certification and green building standards to these systems' financial and market impact on hardwood lumber industry participants. Responses show that industry participants are more familiar with forest certification systems than with green building standards. Among forest certification systems, the Sustainable Forest Initiative (SFI) is the most recognized, followed by the Forest Stewardship Council (FSC). Almost 30 percent of respondents reported holding some type of chain of custody (COC) certification and 26 percent stated that obtaining certification was in their plans. Out of the respondents who participated in COC certification at the time of the study, only 25 percent reported having benefited financially from it. Awareness with green building standards among respondents is low in general, but the Leadership in Energy and Environmental Design (LEED) and the National Green Building Standard were the most recognized. When asked what the industry should do to obtain the maximum benefits from the environmental movement, most respondents, 36 percent, suggested that the industry should do more to educate the public on the environmentally-friendly nature of hardwood products.

The efficacy of forest certification: Perceptions of Canadian forest products retailers

A nation-wide survey of wood products retailers was conducted to examine their perceptions related to forest certification and its impacts in the market place. Four widely accepted forest certification standards were taken into account: International Organisation for Standardization (ISO) 14001, Forest Stewardship Council (FSC), Sustainable Forestry Initiative (SFI), and the Canadian Standards Association (CSA) Z809 Standard. The survey inquired about the economic impacts of forest certification, namely wood purchasing policies and the potential for price premiums on certified wood products. The responses indicated that most retailers had no particular purchasing policies for certified products. However, they reported up to a 20% price premium on certain certified products, although the number of consumers who request certified wood products was small (less than 10%). The retailers also indicated that the most important reasons for buying or selling certified forest products revolved around improved company image, being an environmental leader in the field, and maintaining or increasing market share. Finally, respondents felt that forest certification had minimal impacts on the social aspects of forest management, while the environmental and economic aspects of forest management were perceived to be subject to more marked changes.

Does forest certification enhance community engagement in Australian plantation management?

The rapid expansion of timber plantations across Australia has been contentious, with ongoing debate in rural communities about the social, economic and environmental impacts of plantations. The need for effective and ongoing community engagement (CE) has been highlighted by this ongoing contention and the ensuing desire for plantation management companies to maintain a social licence to operate. CE activities are required under various regulations governing forest management practices within Australia. In recent years, voluntary governance mechanisms, particularly forest certification, have further promoted stakeholder engagement as an integral component of modern forest management. This paper reviews the influence of the introduction of forest certification on CE practice in the field. The effectiveness of operationally-based CE activities conducted within Australian plantation management was examined through a qualitative study of plantation managers and community members in conjunction with a document analysis of relevant regulations, codes of forest practices and forest certification standards. Whilst arguing that forest certification is positively impacting on CE practice, the research indicates that a number of regulatory, corporate and social influences impact on the capacity of forest certification to promote positive changes in CE practice. The impact of forest certification is limited by existing CE requirements within both mandatory and voluntary regulations; the narrow commercially-oriented foci promoted by corporate realities and organisational ethos; poor practitioner skills and understanding of fundamental CE concepts; and the presence of pre-existing negative perceptions of firms or individuals. Regardless of these limiting influences, our research has shown that forest certification is positively affecting engagement practices within operational plantation management. Such improvements are infrequently acknowledged as they are typically not obvious in terms of changes in CE techniques or improved social relations. Instead, we suggest that forest certification is promoting a longer term, cumulative change in CE practice. The capacities of plantation managers and communities to effectively engage with each other are improving due to the forest certification requirement for continual improvement that results in plantation managers continually reflecting on engagement outcomes and adapting practices based on prior learnings.

Criteria and indicators for sustainable forest fuel production and harvesting: A review of current standards for sustainable forest management

Abstract Forest biomass is increasingly being considered as a source of sustainable energy. It is crucial, however, that this biomass be grown and harvested in a sustainable manner. International processes and certification systems have been developed to ensure sustainable forest management (SFM) in general, but it is important to consider if they adequately address specific impacts of intensified production and harvesting methods related to forest fuels. To explore how existing SFM frameworks address sustainable forest fuel production, criteria and indicators (C&I) from 10 different international processes and organizations and 157 international, national and sub-national forest management certification standards under the Forest Stewardship Council (FSC) and the Programme for the Endorsement of Forest Certification (PEFC) were reviewed. International processes include indicators that require identification or reporting of availability, harvested amounts, value, or share in energy consumption of forest fuels. Forest certification standards address several specific woodfuel issues, but not always in a consistent manner. It seems that developed countries more frequently address environmental consequences of harvesting residues or whole trees on soil fertility and biodiversity, while developing countries more frequently address social issues, such as local people’s access to firewood and working conditions in charcoal production. Based on findings, options to improve SFM standards for sustainable forest fuel production are discussed. These options include clarification of terminology, systematic inclusion of important management impacts unique to forest fuel production, coordination of efforts with other related governance processes, including tools promoting sustainability at more integrated levels, such as landscape, supply chain and global levels.

The certified Maine North Woods, where money grows from trees

Beginning in the 1990s, private ownership in Maine forestland shifted from a number of corporate owners to a patchwork of timber investment management organizations (TIMOs) and real estate investment trusts (REITs). This transformation reflected restructuring trends in the paper and pulp industry. During this same period, forest certification increased to levels that today make Maine one of the most certified states in the United States with nearly 8 million acres certified by one of a number of certifying entities. This paper examines the contradictory tensions of these trends. Specifically, the conservation goals of certification are undercut by increased investment in timber resources characterized by new financial instruments focused on return on investments. The increased use of first-party, industry-based certification suggests that the antagonisms between capital and conservation are being resolved in ways that undermine the purported conservation goals of forest certification standards.

Sustainable utilisation of forest biomass for energy—Possibilities and problems: Policy, legislation, certification, and recommendations and guidelines in the Nordic, Baltic, and other European countries

Abstract The substitution of biomass for fossil fuels in energy consumption is a measure to mitigate global warming, as well as having other advantages. Political action plans for increased use exist at both European and national levels. This paper briefly reviews the contents of recommendations, guidelines, and other synthesis publications on sustainable use of forest biomass for energy. Topics are listed and an overview of advantages, disadvantages, and trade-offs between them is given, from the viewpoint of society in general and the forestry and energy sectors in particular. For the Nordic and Baltic countries, the paper also identifies the extent to which wood for energy is included in forest legislation and forest certification standards under the “Programme for the Endorsement of Forest Certification” (PEFC) and the “Forest Stewardship Council” (FSC) schemes. Energy and forest policies at EU and national levels, and European PEFC forest standards are analysed. With respect to energy policies, the utilisation of wood for energy is generally supported in forest policies, but forest legislation is seldom used as a direct tool to encourage the utilisation of wood for energy. Regulations sometimes restrict use for environmental reasons. Forest certification standards include indicators directly related to the utilisation of wood for energy under several criteria, with most occurrences found under environmental criteria. Roles and problems in relation to policy, legislation, certification standards, recommendations and guidelines, and science are discussed.

La Gestione Forestale Sostenibile: esempio di applicazione di criteri & indicatori della certificazione PEFC

Abstract: After a short description of forest certification standards, the Authors outline PEFC certification schemes implemented in a study-case (municipal forest of Montano Antilia, in the National Park of Cilento and Vallo di Diano, South of Italy), discussing the limited success of certification and some of the obstacles to its adoption in the specific case. One of the barriers for the adoption of forest certification is the lack of basic information, even in presence of the Forests Management Plan.

Economic impacts of adjacency and green-up constraints on timber production at a landscape scale

Although many different forest certification standards exist, harvest adjacency and green-up regulations are common to most certifying bodies. This study develops a means for evaluating trade-offs associated with implementation of nth-order adjacency and green-up constraints on a 1.7 million ha landscape in Oregon in the US. Depending on the type of adjacency structure and delay between harvests, the opportunity cost of the restrictions, estimated by the change in discounted sum of producer and consumer surplus in the regional log market, ranged from 0.25% to 66% (or US $60 million to $15.3 billion) of the unconstrained value. Increasing green-up delays beyond 30–40 years had little effect on estimated opportunity cost of the modeled restrictions.

04/02400 Process development of hydrogenous gasproduction for PEFC from biogas: Zhang, Z.-G. et al. Fuel Processing Technology, 2004, 85, (8–10), 1213–1229

Forest biomass is increasingly being considered as a source of sustainable energy. It is crucial, however, that this biomass be grown and harvested in a sustainable manner.International processes and certification systems have been developed to ensure sustainable forest management (SFM) in general, but it is important to consider if they adequately address specific impacts of intensified production and harvesting methods related to forest fuels. To explore how existing SFM frameworks address sustainable forest fuel production, criteria and indicators (C&I) from 10 different international processes and organizations and 157 international, national and sub-national forest management certification standards under the Forest Stewardship Council (FSC) and the Programme for the Endorsement of Forest Certification (PEFC) were reviewed. International processes include indicators that require identification or reporting of availability, harvested amounts, value, or share in energy consumption of forest fuels. Forest certification standards address several specific woodfuel issues, but not always in a consistent manner. It seems that developed countries more frequently address environmental consequences of harvesting residues or whole trees on soil fertility and biodiversity, while developing countries more frequently address social issues, such as local people’s access to firewood and working conditions in charcoal production. Based on findings, options to improve SFM standards for sustainable forest fuel production are discussed. These options include clarification of terminology, systematic inclusion of important management impacts unique to forest fuel production, coordination of efforts with other related governance processes, including tools promoting sustainability at more integrated levels, such as landscape, supply chain and global levels.

Costs of forestry best management practices in the south: A review

In response to federal and state clean water laws, forestry best management practices (BMPs) have been developed and implemented to prevent nonpoint source water pollution. Ellefson and Miles (1985) found that estimated BMP costs in the Midwest could amount to more than half of the net returns on national forest timber sales. Henly et al. (1988) found that government costs to implement forest practice rules ranged from as little as $100,000 per year in Idaho and Nevada to more than $4 million annually in California. A review of studies in the South indicates that estimated BMP costs have increased over time. Lickwar et al. (1992) estimated Southeast average costs of $12.45 per acre, $2.34 per MBF, or 2.87% of gross stumpage values based on 1987 BMPs and prices. Woodman and Cubbage (1994) estimated Georgia average BMP costs of $24.33 per acre or $3.02 per MBF for forest industry lands and $41.65 per acre or $5.39 per MBF for NIPF lands. For Virginia, Shaffer et al. (1998) estimated median BMP costs of $18.90 per acre. These moderate cost increases could be attributed to a higher level of standards in the revision of each state BMP guidelines manual, as well as moderate price inflation. BMPs such as better road construction, water bars, culverts, and broad-based dips have been most expensive so far. To date streamside zones have not been very expensive because the rules allow most of the valuable residual tees to be harvested as long as heavy equipment does not operate near the streams. However, this limitation may become much more difficult and costly – as indicated by Kluender et al. (2000) – as fewer chainsaw fellers and cable skidders are available. Stricter BMPs, such as those already adopted to implement forest certification standards in the South or those used to protect salmon habitat in the West, could prompt more expensive southern BMPs for landowners and state agencies in the future.

The institutional design of forest certification standards initiatives and its influence on the role of science: the case of forest genetic resources

In the 1990s a wide array of non-governmental certification initiatives emerged as a way to promote the sustainable management of resources in sectors such as fisheries and forestry. In this paper, we examine two related questions about these initiatives: how does the institutional design of certification initiatives affect the way science is used in the development of certification standards and in whose interest is science employed? Using the empirical case of forest certification and the specific standards various initiatives have created to address the management of forest genetic resources, we show how structural aspects of decision-making processes affects the standards adopted and the rationalization for their appropriateness. Two basic models of decision-making—stakeholder participation and technical expertise—are discussed in relation to three certification initiatives active in North America—the Canadian Standards Association, the Sustainable Forestry Initiative and the Forest Stewardship Council. By examining the standards these initiatives set for the management of forest genetic resources, we illustrate how two dimensions of science—uncertainty and the logic of cause and effect—are used to rationalize cautious and rigid versus flexible and discretionary standards for the management of forest genetic resources. Our findings indicate that the design or structure of certification decision-making processes, and their embedded balance of authority, mediate the form of standards initiatives will justify on the basis of science.