Forest Biodiversity Indicators Research Articles

The forest biodiversity index (FOBI): monitoring forest biodiversity potential over space and time

Public forest agencies are obligated to take steps to conserve and where possible enhance biodiversity, but they often lack information and tools that support and evidence their decision making. To help inform and monitor impact of management actions and policies aimed at improving forest biodiversity, we have co-developed a quantitative, transparent and repeatable approach for assessing the biodiversity potential of the United Kingdom’s (UK) publicly owned forests over space and time. The FOrest Biodiversity Index (FOBI) integrates several forest biodiversity indicators or ‘metrics’, which characterise management-sensitive woodland and landscape features associated with biodiversity. These are measured or modelled annually using spatially comprehensive forest survey data and other well-maintained spatial environmental datasets. Following metric normalisation and a correlation analysis, a statistically robust selection of these metrics is aggregated using a hierarchical procedure to provide composite index scores. The FOBI metric and index results are provided for every individual public forest, and can be summarised across any reporting region of interest. Compared to existing indicators that rely on sample-based forest data, the results thus better support decisions and obligations at a range of scales, from locally targeted action to national, long-term biodiversity monitoring and reporting. We set out how the FOBI approach and associated bespoke online interfaces were co-developed to meet public forest agency needs in two constituent countries of the UK (England and Scotland), whilst providing a conceptual framework that can be adapted and transferred to other geographic areas and private forests. Example results are reported for England’s public forests for four annual timestamps between 2014 and 2021, which indicate improvements to the biodiversity potential of public forests and surrounding landscapes over this time via increases in their diversity, extent, condition and connectivity.

Temporal Development of Microhabitats on Living Habitat Trees in Temperate European Forests

AbstractTree-related microhabitats (TreMs) have been promoted as indicators of forest biodiversity and to guide conservation practices. Ensuring the provision of diverse TreMs in the long term is crucial for the survival of many forest-dwelling species. Yet, this task is challenging in the absence of information regarding TreM dynamics. We analysed the temporal development of TreMs on 11,569 living trees in temperate European forests. To identify drivers of change in TreM abundance and richness over a period of 3–12 years, we estimated the rates of TreM persistence and loss events at the tree-level using survival analysis methods: persistence was characterised by consistency and increment events (when TreM numbers were maintained or increased) and loss was defined as a reduction in TreM numbers or their disappearance. Stratified Cox proportional hazards models were fitted for different TreM groups. Our study revealed a highly dynamic TreM development on living habitat trees, particularly on large trees. While specific TreMs are prone to disappearing, irrespective of tree species or TreM groups, total TreM richness persists over a 12-year period. TreMs such as crown deadwood, epiphytes or woodpecker cavities are prone to decrease in the long term. However, large trees were more likely to maintain a certain degree of TreM richness. Increasing diameters resulted in high persistence rates in seven TreM groups and concomitantly low loss rates in four of them (exposed sap- and heartwood, concavities). Selecting habitat trees based on TreMs should consider the likelihood of TreMs being lost over time, to ensure the long-term provision of microhabitats for associated species. Graphical Abstract

Modelling and Mapping of Forest Biodiversity Indicators Using Sentinel-2 and PlanetScope Remotely Sensed Data

Tropical montane forests harbour exceptionally high biodiversity yet face severe threats from human activities. Assessing forest biodiversity over large areas is crucial yet extremely challenging. Remote sensing provides an efficient monitoring solution, but few studies have focused on Tanzania's diverse, montane forests. We collected field data on tree species composition within 159 plots across montane forests in Tanzania's West Usambara region. We calculated species richness, evenness, and Shannon diversity index as indicators of tree diversity. Using Sentinel-2 and PlanetScope satellite imagery, we derived spectral, textural, and vegetation index predictors to model these indices via generalized additive models and extreme gradient boosting. PlanetScope-based XGBoost models performed best, explaining 19.7% of variation in Shannon diversity. Incorporating textural predictors further improved model accuracy. Despite inherent challenges in modelling complex tropical forests, our findings demonstrate promising potential of Sentinel-2 and PlanetScope for regional biodiversity monitoring where field surveys are limited. Further research could enhance these initial results by leveraging higher resolution data and increasing field sampling for effective monitoring of tropical biodiversity.

Tree-Related Microhabitats and Multi-Taxon Biodiversity Quantification Exploiting ALS Data

The quantification of tree-related microhabitats (TreMs) and multi-taxon biodiversity is pivotal to the implementation of forest conservation policies, which are crucial under the current climate change scenarios. We assessed the capacity of Airborne Laser Scanning (ALS) data to quantify biodiversity indices related to both forest beetle and bird communities and TreMs, calculating the species richness and types of saproxylic and epixylic TreMs using the Shannon index. As biodiversity predictors, 240 ALS-derived metrics were calculated: 214 were point-cloud based, 14 were pixel-level from the canopy height model, and 12 were RGB spectral statistics. We used the random forests algorithm to predict species richness and the Shannon diversity index, using the field plot measures as dependent variables and the ALS-derived metrics as predictors for each taxon and TreMs type. The final models were used to produce wall-to-wall maps of biodiversity indices. The Shannon index produced the best performance for each group considered, with a mean difference of −6.7%. Likewise, the highest R2 was for the Shannon index (0.17, against 0.14 for richness). Our results confirm the importance of ALS data in assessing forest biodiversity indicators that are relevant for monitoring forest habitats. The proposed method supports the quantification and monitoring of the measures needed to implement better forest stands and multi-taxon biodiversity conservation.

Diversity and Distribution of Macrofungi in Protected Mountain Forest Habitats in Serbia and Its Relation to Abiotic Factors.

Fungal diversity is one of the most important indicators of overall forest biodiversity and its health. However, scarce information exists on the state of macrofungal communities of mountain forests in Serbia, making it one of the countries with the least-published mycological data in the Mediterranean and Balkan region of Europe. This paper presents the results of the first comprehensive, long-term study of macrofungal communities in some of the most important mountain forest ecosystems in Serbia (Tara, Kopaonik and Vidlič). In the course of three consecutive years, the sampling of five permanent experimental plots resulted in 245 species of macrofungi, classified into three functional groups (terricolous saprothrophs, lignicolous, and mycorrhizal fungi). Special attention was given to protected and indicator species, which point out the great value of studied forest habitats and the importance of their conservation. It was found that precipitation, habitat humidity, and temperature significantly influence the occurrence and distribution, primarily of mycorrhizal and lignicolous group of fungi. Thus, the continuation of long-term monitoring is crucial in order to more precisely determine which groups/species of macrofungi would, and to what extent they would, adapt to a rapidly changing climate.

Habitat and microhabitat suitability for Italian Platycerus species (Coleoptera: Lucanidae): elevation, slope aspect and deadwood features

ABSTRACT Deadwood is one of the main indicators of forest biodiversity. Stag beetle (Coleoptera: Lucanidae) larvae are saproxylic organisms specialized in living in deadwood colonized by microorganisms; these beetles are bioindicators of forest integrity and are currently under threat by habitat loss, climate change and intensive forest management. A multi-year collection of data on the habitat and microhabitat deadwood-related requirements of Platycerus caraboides (Linnaeus, 1758) and Platycerus caprea (De Geer, 1774) in northern Italian forests has shed new light on the bio-ecology of these two reclusive species. They are predominantly found at medium to high elevations on north-facing slopes. Their presence – but not their abundance – is related the plant taxon, diameter and decay stage of the deadwood, predominantly belonging to the family Fagaceae but – a new finding – also to the family Salicaceae (Salix caprea L.). Both species prefer narrow, faded, soft, very powdery, humid logs. Based on these findings, forestry management strategies should not overlook the importance of fine deadwood in managing saproxylic biodiversity in European forests.

Deadwood volumes matter in epixylic bryophyte conservation, but precipitation limits the establishment of substrate-specific communities

Deadwood is a habitat for numerous biota and serves as an indicator of forest biodiversity. Bryophytes significantly contribute to deadwood communities and epixylic bryophytes are particularly threatened. Additional to deadwood volumes, their occurrence depends on climatic conditions. However, the interactive effects of deadwood and climate on epixylic bryophytes have hardly been assessed. Here, we analyse these effects based on 8 143 bryophyte specimens collected on 510 logs in 51 Austrian forests. We found that annual precipitation sum and deadwood volume explained 67%, 90%, and 82% of the variation in moss, liverwort and total species richness, respectively. Segmented regression indicated several breakpoints in these relationships, especially at c. 60 m3/ha of deadwood and 900 mm, respectively 1700 mm of annual precipitation. Epixylic bryophyte diversity increased strongly up to the deadwood threshold, but only moderately with still higher volumes. Nine hundred mm of annual precipitation was a macroclimatic limit for deadwood-specific bryophyte species. Below this value, obligate epixylic bryophytes were lost and liverworts were rare, even at sites with high deadwood amounts. At the wettest sites, the overall number of species decreased while deadwood-specific specialists further increased in number. The close tie of epixylic bryophytes to macroclimate may constrain the efficiency of deadwood management measures and suggests considerable impacts of climate change. A drier and warmer climate will probably decrease species richness and change the composition of epixylic bryophyte communities, with the most characteristic species, especially liverworts, facing the highest risk.

Predictors of diversity of deadwood-dwelling macrofungi in a European natural forest

Deadwood plays a crucial role in the maintenance of biodiversity in forest ecosystems. Its quantity and quality are commonly used in ecology and nature conservation as a proxy indicator of forest biodiversity. In this study we exposed 720 logs of wood in a full-factorial experiment, set in a temperate European forest, to test the influence of forest type (three levels), host wood identity (four species) and degree of contact with soil (three levels) on species richness and species composition of wood-inhabiting macrofungi.The forest type did not influence the taxon richness and had limited influence on the composition of deadwood-dwelling mycobiota. The degree of contact with soil was an important factor, with the taxon richness of the subterranean logs extremely low and their fungal composition being a subset of the species pools of logs lying on the soil surface and those hanging above the ground. The host wood identity was the strongest predictor of taxon richness and composition of macrofungi: Carpinus betulus wood hosted the highest, Quercus robur the medium, and Picea abies and Pinus sylvestris ex aequo the lowest taxon richness of fungi. Fungal communities differed significantly between all host wood species with the exception of conifers, which hosted similar mycocoenoses.Our study indicates that host wood identity and degree of log contact with soil are the most important factors determining macrofungal communities in deadwood, overriding the influence of forest type. Taking into account the degree of wood debris contact with soil revealed that the common practice of leaving subterranean wood biomass (stumps and root systems) in logged forests does not have any importance for the diversity of macrofungi. Thus, a reasonable amount of diverse above ground wood debris needs to be left (or brought from outside) to maintain the diversity of the forest ecosystems.

Maximum height of mountain forests abruptly decreases above an elevation breakpoint

ABSTRACT Canopy height is an excellent indicator of forest productivity, biodiversity and other ecosystem functions. Yet, we know little about how elevation drives canopy height in mountain areas. Here we take advantage of an ambitious airborne LiDAR flight plan to assess the relationship between elevation and maximum forest canopy height, and discuss its implications for the monitoring of mountain forests’ responses to climate change. We characterized vegetation structure using Airborne Laser Scanning (ALS) data provided by the Spanish Geographic Institute. For each ALS return within forested areas, we calculated the maximum canopy height in a 20 × 20 m grid, and then added information on potential drivers of maximum canopy height, including ground elevation, terrain slope and aspect, soil characteristics, and continentality. We observed a strong, negative, piece-wise response of maximum canopy height to increasing elevation, with a well-defined breakpoint (at 1623 ± 5 m) that sets the beginning of the relationship between both variables. Above this point, the maximum canopy height decreased at a rate of 1.7 m per each 100 m gain in elevation. Elevation alone explained 63% of the variance in maximum canopy height, much more than any other tested variable. We observed species- and aspect-specific effects of elevation on maximum canopy height that match previous local studies, suggesting common patterns across mountain ranges. Our study is the first regional analysis of the relationship between elevation and maximum canopy height at such spatial resolution. The tree-height decline breakpoint holds an intrinsic potential to monitor mountain forests, and can thus serve as a robust indicator to appraise the effects of climate change, and address fundamental questions about how tree development varies along elevation gradients at regional or global scales.

Forest Resources Assessments: Mensuration, Inventory and Planning

There is much demand for forest information at the regional, national, and international level, covering aspects as varied as growing stock, carbon pools, and non-wood forest products, as well as information on forest biodiversity, risks, and disturbances, or social indicators [...]

Coleotteri del legno e microhabitat forestali nei boschi misti di abete bianco e faggio della Riserva di Vallombrosa

Forest biodiversity can be monitored trough ecological indicators, such as microhabitats and dead wood. Among the primary users of these small habitats there are arthropods, birds and mammals, but the most important component is represented by Coleoptera. In 2020, a study was launched in the mixed forests of silver fir and beech in the Nature Reserve of Vallombrosa in order to examine the saproxylic beetles present and the relationships between these species and indicators of forest biodiversity. In 47 plots, we sampled flying and crawling beetles, assessed the microhabitats and measured the volumes of dead wood and living trees. In this paper we report the first results obtained from the study. In the examined stands, we found threatened and endangered species included in the Red List of Italian Saproxylic Beetles and species protected under the Habitat Directive. A total of 2573 microhabitats were surveyed and proved to have ecological relationships with the sampled beetle species. The percentage ratio between the volume of dead wood and the volume of living trees was 39%. The results are discussed to describe the ecological role of the saproxylic beetles with respect to the biodiversity indicators. Saproxylic Beetles and microhabitats in mixed forests of silver firand beech in the Vallombrosa ReserveSaproxylic Beetles and microhabitats in mixed forests of silver firand beech in the Vallombrosa Reserve

Decision Making in Tree Selection – Contemplating Conflicting Goals via Marteloscope Exercises

The implementation of biodiversity conservation measures in forests managed for timber production usually implies trade-offs between ecological and economic objectives. In continuous cover forestry these trade-offs emerge at the scale of selecting individual trees for timber harvesting or habitat retention. Tree selection determines both the economic viability of timber management and the prevalence of tree-related microhabitats, considered a multi-taxon indicator of forest biodiversity. Recent studies find that tree selection is influenced by several factors, such as individual management preferences and goals, professional education and institutional context. To gain a deeper understanding of tree-selection practices in the context of retention forestry, we analyse four tree-selection exercises on silvicultural training sites (Marteloscopes) performed by groups with different professional backgrounds: conservationists, foresters, and students of each. Based on qualitative data from participant observations and group discussions, we explore their decision-making strategies, reasoning, and practices. Our analysis provides novel insights into decision-making processes when implementing conservation measures, especially with regard to dealing with trade-offs and uncertainties. Our findings indicate that tree-selection decisions are not merely the result of cognitive and rational weighing processes. They can be understood as practices requiring experience, professional routine, and intuition. These practices differ across professional cultures. Despite these differences, the participants of the analysed Marteloscope exercises developed an understanding of the other stakeholders’ motivations and restrictions. The setting stimulated a change of perspective that built awareness in many of the participants of their own routines and biases. This may facilitate professional cooperation, cross-disciplinary learning, and the implementation of biodiversity conservation.

Machine Learning Algorithms to Predict Tree-Related Microhabitats using Airborne Laser Scanning

In the last few years, the occurrence and abundance of tree-related microhabitats and habitat trees have gained great attention across Europe as indicators of forest biodiversity. Nevertheless, observing microhabitats in the field requires time and well-trained staff. For this reason, new efficient semiautomatic systems for their identification and mapping on a large scale are necessary. This study aims at predicting microhabitats in a mixed and multi-layered Mediterranean forest using Airborne Laser Scanning data through the implementation of a Machine Learning algorithm. The study focuses on the identification of LiDAR metrics useful for detecting microhabitats according to the recent hierarchical classification system for Tree-related Microhabitats, from single microhabitats to the habitat trees. The results demonstrate that Airborne Laser Scanning point clouds support the prediction of microhabitat abundance. Better prediction capabilities were obtained at a higher hierarchical level and for some of the single microhabitats, such as epiphytic bryophytes, root buttress cavities, and branch holes. Metrics concerned with tree height distribution and crown density are the most important predictors of microhabitats in a multi-layered forest.

Spatial patterns of bat diversity overlap with woodpecker abundance.

Woodpecker diversity is usually higher in natural forests rich in dead wood and old trees than in managed ones, thus this group of birds is regarded as an indicator of forest biodiversity. Woodpeckers excavate cavities which can be subsequently used by several bird species. As a consequence, their abundance indicates high avian abundance and diversity in forests. However, woodpecker-made holes may be also important for other animals, for example, mammals but it has seldom been investigated so far. Here, we examine how well one species, the Great Spotted Woodpecker, predicts species richness, occurrence and acoustic activity of bats in Polish pine forests. In 2011 we conducted woodpecker and bat surveys at 63 point-count sites in forests that varied in terms of stand age, structure and amount of dead wood. From zero to five Great Spotted Woodpeckers at a point-count site were recorded. The total duration of the echolocation calls during a 10-min visit varied from 0 to 542 s and the number of bat species/species groups recorded during a visit ranged between zero to five. The local abundance of the woodpecker was positively correlated with bat species richness (on the verge of significance), bat occurrence and pooled bat activity. The occurrence of Eptesicus and Vespertilio bats and Nyctalus species was positively related with the abundance of the Great Spotted Woodpecker. The activity of Pipistrellus pygmaeus, Eptesicus and Vespertilio bats and a group of Myotis species was not associated with the woodpecker abundance, but echolocation calls of Nyctalus species, P. nathusii and P.pipistrellus were more often at sites with many Great Spotted Woodpeckers. Moreover, the probability of bat presence and the activity of bats was generally higher shortly after dusk and in middle of the summer than in late spring. We suggest that the observed correlations can be driven by similar roosting habitats (e.g., woodpeckers can provide breeding cavities for bats) or possibly by associated invertebrate food resources of woodpeckers and bats. The abundance of Great Spotted Woodpecker seems to be a good positive indicator of bat species richness, occurrence and activity, thus adding a group of relatively cryptic forest species that are indicated by the presence of the Great Spotted Woodpecker.

Stand Structural Characteristics Are the Most Practical Biodiversity Indicators for Forest Management Planning in Europe

Including biodiversity assessments in forest management planning is becoming increasingly important due to the importance of biodiversity for forest ecosystem resilience provision and sustainable functioning. Here we investigated the potential to include biodiversity indicators into forest management planning in Europe. In particular, we aimed to (i) identify biodiversity indicators and data collection methods for biodiversity assessments at the stand and landscape levels, and (ii) evaluate the practicality of those indicators for forest management planning. We performed a literature review in which we screened 188 research studies published between 1990 and 2020. We selected 94 studies that fulfilled the inclusion criteria and examined in more detail. We considered three aspects of biodiversity: structure, composition, and function, and four forest management categories: unmanaged, managed, plantation, and silvopastoral. We used three criteria to evaluate the practicality of forest biodiversity indicators: cost-effectiveness, ease of application, and time-effectiveness. We identified differences in the practicality of biodiversity indicators for their incorporation into management plans. Stand-level indicators are more practical than landscape-level indicators. Moreover, structural biodiversity indicators (e.g., large trees, canopy openness, and old forest stands) are more useful in management plans than compositional indicators, as these are easily observable by non-professionals and can be obtained by forest inventories. Compositional indicators such are vascular plants, fungi, bryophyte, lichens, and invertebrate species are hard to identify by non-professionals and thus are impractical. Functional indicators (e.g., nutrient cycling) are not sufficiently addressed in the literature. Using recently updated existing databases (e.g., national forest inventories and bird atlases) is very time and cost-efficient. Remote sensing and other technology (e.g., smartphone applications) are promising for efficient data collection in the future. However, more research is needed to make these tools more accurate and applicable to a variety of ecological conditions and scales. Until then, forest stand structural variables derived from inventories can help improve management plans to prepare European forests towards an uncertain future.

Incorporating a model for ground lichens into multi-functional forest planning for boreal forests in Finland

The quantitative assessment of forest management impacts on ecosystem services calls for ecological models to be linked to forest planning systems. In these systems, such models are expected to produce valid and accurate predictions to quantify the effects of alternative forest management strategies on ecosystem services. As an example, we present an evaluation of the model for the percent cover of ground lichens in forests on mineral soils in Finland. First, the performance of the lichen cover model fitted to the data of forest vegetation surveyed in 1985–1986 was comprehensively validated with the data resurveyed on the same plots in 1995. The differences between the observed and predicted values in lichen cover were calculated and analysed. Second, stand-level analyses were conducted to validate the predicted development of lichen cover in accordance with the rotation length development and management of forest stands. Third, the impacts of forest management scenarios on the average lichen cover at regional level were calculated to validate the results over larger areas. Lichen cover was predicted by site fertility, growing stock, forest harvests, soil preparation and geographic location. Our evaluation suggested that the model logically predicted the 10-year change in lichen cover at the stand level. A negative bias was found in predictions especially on xeric sites in northern Finland, although this was not related to stand management, but probably to global greening and reindeer grazing. The model based on the cross-sectional vegetation survey data showed its ability to describe the long-term changes in lichen cover along with the development and management of stands in different site fertility classes. On xeric and barren sites, the analyses showed decreasing trends in the average lichen cover at the regional level during the 30-year simulation period. However, the development of the average lichen cover varied only slightly among the alternative forest management scenarios. This study provides a modelling approach to evaluate the impacts of forest management on ecosystem services, here the cover of ground lichens, as an indicator of forest biodiversity and quality of reindeer pastures.

Persistence of a keystone microhabitat in boreal forests: Cavities of Eurasian Three-toed Woodpeckers (Picoides tridactylus)

Tree cavities are microhabitats used by multiple taxa and are considered indicators of forest biodiversity. The factors that affect cavity occurrence and its dynamics are poorly known. We studied tree- and stand-level factors that affect cavity persistence in boreal forests. Cavities of Eurasian Three-toed Woodpeckers (Picoides tridactylus) (n = 654) were surveyed in a 170 km2 area in southern Finland for 31 years during 1987–2017. In total, 447 cavities were lost during the study period: 329 to tree fall or breakage, 72 to cavity damage, and 46 to logging. With the Kaplan-Meier method and Cox proportional hazards models, we analysed which tree- and stand-level factors affected the risk of a cavity to be damaged or lost due to tree fall. The median lifespan of cavities was 10 years, and both tree- and stand-level factors affected the persistence of cavities. Cavities in managed forest areas with low territory occupancy rates were more at risk of tree fall and cavity damage than in other types of forest areas. In all nest tree species, with the exception of European aspen (Populus tremula), the risk of cavity loss to tree fall declined with increasing tree diameter. Moreover, the risk of cavity loss to tree fall was higher in dead trees than in healthy and weakened trees. Cavities in deciduous tree species other than aspen were more at risk of damage than in other tree species. Furthermore, the risk of cavity damage was greater in cavities located lower in a tree. This study showed that factors like the tree species, and size and condition of a tree modify the persistence of woodpecker-made cavities. Consequently, it is likely that these factors influence the value of cavities as microhabitats and how these cavities can be used as indicators of forest biodiversity. Understanding the dynamics of cavities in forest habitats appears critical for the use of cavities as general biodiversity indicators.

A plot-level exploratory analysis of European forest based on the results from the BioSoil Forest Biodiversity project

The lack of multi-dimensional data is one of the major gaps which limit the knowledge and the assessment possibilities of European forests. Nowadays, the most extensive and complete data on the European forest statuses are given by National Forest Inventories (NFIs) which provide information about the extent of forest’s resources and their composition and structure. Traditionally, NFIs collect data related to trees, with a limited consideration of other habitat components, such as ground vegetation. This information which goes beyond the mere arboreal component is instead essential for a more complete forest biodiversity assessment. This paper is aimed at introducing the ICP Forests LI-BioDiv database which resulted from BioSoil Forest Biodiversity, a large collaborative European project. This database is organized as a multi-dimensional forest geodatabase that contains forest structure and vegetation records collected in 19 European countries in the period of 2005–2008. The data were acquired from 3311 geocoded plots where several different types of data were gathered: stand-level general information, tree-level data, deadwood, canopy closure and floristic composition. This paper is structured in order to: (1) give a clear overview of the raw data available in the database and to (2) present an elaboration of raw data to calculate simple plot-level forest variables (biomass, deadwood volume, alpha diversity). On the basis of the results we achieved, the LI-BioDiv database appears useful mainly for research purposes aimed at studying cross-relationships between multiple forest variables and not for an operative use for monitoring and assessing European forest. In particular, we hope that this contribution can stimulate scientists to carry out cross-analysis of the database for defining future forest biodiversity indicators that could be introduced into the field protocols of the NFIs in Europe.

Long-term ecological monitoring on forest ecosystems in Indian Himalayan Region: Criteria and indicator approach

The Himalaya, as provider of range of goods and ecosystem services, is vital for sustaining the life of billions of people. Recognition as one of the Global biodiversity hotspot implies its global significance. The forest ecosystems and plant biodiversity in the region is predicted to respond to the rapid warming and the human induced perturbations. However, documentation of these responses and likely consequences is meagre so as to provide a basis for future comparison. Realizing the importance of understanding relationships of climate change (CC) and forest biodiversity, systematic collection of data sets, covering various aspects of environment was attempted through establishing Long-Term Ecological Research (LTER) and monitoring. The LTERs in general, have emerged to be important to improve our understanding on spatio-temporal variations happening in a particular ecosystem. Indian National Action Plan for Climate Change (NAPCC) sets out National Mission for Sustaining the Himalayan Ecosystem (NMSHE) to conserve Himalayan ecosystem from the brunt of climate vulnerabilities. Considering importance of Himalaya forests and their sensitivity to CC impacts, NMSHE has stressed on undertaking Long-Term Ecological Monitoring (LTEM) and development of monitoring protocol with forest biodiversity specific parameters and indicators. In this context first of its kind attempt have been made to develop long-term ecological monitoring protocol along with suitable criteria and indicators for the Indian Himalaya, and demonstrate it through documenting base line data of established LTEM plots in diverse forest types in the Indian western Himalaya.

Relationships between stand structural attributes and saproxylic beetle abundance in a Mediterranean broadleaved mixed forest

Deadwood and microhabitats play a fundamental role in many forest ecosystem processes. Deadwood provides the substrate for a multitude of wood-dependent organisms, as well as a variety of microhabitats. Deadwood is a key factor in maintaining the ecosystem functionality and increasing the overall forest biodiversity. In Mediterranean forests, the relationship between stand-structure attributes and species-diversity indicators is still poorly investigated. In this study, we hypothesized that the abundance of saproxylic species was influenced by (i) the composition and amount of deadwood, and (ii) the heterogeneity in types and density of microhabitats. The investigation was carried out in a broadleaved mixed forest located in Central Apennine (Italy), in which silvicultural interventions were interrupted for several decades. The experimental area extends on approximately 240 ha; structural traits, deadwood and microhabitats were sampled on 50 plots of 530 m2. Saproxylic beetles were collected using window flight traps and emergence traps on decaying deadwood. We applied joint species distribution models (JSDM) to quantify the relationship between forest attributes and the abundance of saproxylic species, explicitly including their functional traits (e.g., trophic level). Results demonstrated that microhabitats, living biomass, basal area and coarse woody debris had a significant effect of saproxylic beetles belonging to different trophic categories. Considering the conservation status, only the stand basal area significantly affected the abundance of Near Threatened (NT) saproxylic beetles. This study highlighted the importance of integrating multiple biodiversity indicators to find sustainable solutions for conservation purposes, unlike many studies on conservation-oriented management strategies, more frequently focused on independent forest biodiversity indicators.