Foreign Concessions Research Articles

Challenging the Palate and the Mind. Introducing Western Baking Vocabulary Into Chinese

Challenging the Palate and the Mind. Introducing Western Baking Vocabulary into Chinese. Starting from the first Western recipe book published in China in 1866, the paper analyzes the attempts to translate Western bakery vocabulary into Chinese. Although the Chinese cuisine was already very rich and refined, with a complex vocabulary, dessert had never been an integral part of a traditional meal, and, in fact, there was no specific word for it. After China’s defeat in the two Opium Wars, in the mid-19th century, the increasing foreign presence on Chinese soil meant both an increase in demand for cooks able to satisfy the dietary needs of the Westerners, and of restaurants serving Western food, especially in cities with foreign concessions, like Shanghai, where dining in such a place had become very “modern”. Zao yang fan shu (Foreign Cookery in Chinese) compiled and translated by Martha Foster Crawford, and published at The American Presbyterian Mission Press, in Shanghai, in 1866, was the first Western recipe book to be translated into Chinese. Out of the 271 recipes, 139 are desserts. Considering the resistance of the Chinese language to loanwords, especially phonetic loans, the paper looks at the solutions employed by Crawford to translate the new vocabulary, find out when were the phonetic loans used and how were they transcribed, if it was possible to identify equivalents in Chinese for the new terms, which terms were translated as semantic loans, and which are still in use today. Keywords: Zao yang fan shu, translation, recipe book, baking, phonetic/semantic loan

Концессионное природопользование в Евро-Арктической зоне России в 1920-е годы: эколого-экономический и исторический аспект

The article provides a retrospective analysis of the development of concessions in the European North of Russia, showing their impact on economic development and the state of the environment. The purpose of the research is to study the experience of transferring the raw materials resources of the European north of Russia in concession to foreign entrepreneurs in the 1920s to attract investment in the implementation of projects for proper and economically efficient use of natural resources. The author considers forestry, fishing and fur-trading concessions as the object of the study. Based on the analysis of various published and archival sources the author reveals that the concessionaires, in the interests of obtaining income, violated state laws, including environmental laws. Critical analysis of the activities of foreign concessions creates a scientific basis for the implementation of national economic projects, and gives impetus to the development of domestic environmental science. The results of the study on the use of the experience of concessional environmental management are due to be applied in developing measures to prevent the negative impact of Arctic development on the environment, to attract investments, including foreign ones, to harmonize the interests of business and the local population.

The Implication of 19th Century Colonial Facade Characteristics on Residence Design in Tianjin, China

This research delves into the intricate implications of 19th-century colonial facade characteristics on residence design in Tianjin, China. As a prominent city in the early 20th century, Tianjin boasted a unique blend of foreign concessions and indigenous Chinese architectural heritage. The study aims to bridge the knowledge gap regarding the significance of colonial heritage in residence design and its cultural preservation. The research objectives encompass exploring colonial facade traits of the 19th-20th century, experimenting with their integration into modern residence design, and proposing their relevance for Tianjin's context. Tianjin's historical evolution, initially marked by its status as a treaty port shared by various nations shaped its architectural identity. The research employs a qualitative approach, involving on-site visits and photography to gather primary data from heritage buildings, both colonial-owned and those influenced by colonial aesthetics. This method facilitates a comprehensive assessment of architectural details, enabling a deep understanding of the interplay between colonial and indigenous elements. The study also employs a survey questionnaire to further investigate how colonial facade characteristics impact the residents' perceptions, motivations, and design choices. This approach enhances the analysis of intricate design decisions that link past colonial influences to contemporary residence design. Through content analysis and data triangulation, the study reveals insights into the interwoven cultural, historical, and aesthetic factors that have shaped Tianjin's architectural landscape. By bridging the gaps in understanding regarding the effects of colonial aesthetics on residence design, this research contributes to a broader discourse on architectural preservation and urban development. It underscores the importance of acknowledging and integrating colonial heritage to create a distinctive architectural narrative that captures the essence of Tianjin's rich history. Ultimately, this study enriches the discourse surrounding architectural preservation, cultural continuity, and the symbiotic relationship between past and present in urban design.

The Implication of 19th Century Colonial Facade Characteristics on Residence Design in Tianjin, China

This research delves into the intricate implications of 19th-century colonial facade characteristics on residence design in Tianjin, China. As a prominent city in the early 20th century, Tianjin boasted a unique blend of foreign concessions and indigenous Chinese architectural heritage. The study aims to bridge the knowledge gap regarding the significance of colonial heritage in residence design and its cultural preservation. The research objectives encompass exploring colonial facade traits of the 19th-20th century, experimenting with their integration in modern residence design, and proposing their relevance for Tianjin's context. Tianjin's historical evolution, initially marked by its status as a treaty port shared by various nations, shaped its architectural identity. The research employs a qualitative approach, involving on-site visits and photography to gather primary data from heritage buildings, both colonial-owned and those influenced by colonial aesthetics. This method facilitates a comprehensive assessment of architectural details, enabling a deep understanding of the interplay between colonial and indigenous elements. The study also employs a survey questionnaire to further investigate how colonial facade characteristics impact the residents' perceptions, motivations, and design choices. This approach enhances the analysis of intricate design decisions that link past colonial influences to contemporary residence design. Through content analysis and data triangulation, the study reveals insights into the interwoven cultural, historical, and aesthetic factors that have shaped Tianjin's architectural landscape. By bridging the gaps in understanding regarding the effects of colonial aesthetics on residence design, this research contributes to a broader discourse on architectural preservation and urban development. It underscores the importance of acknowledging and integrating colonial heritage to create a distinctive architectural narrative that captures the essence of Tianjin's rich history. Ultimately, this study enriches the discourse surrounding architectural preservation, cultural continuity, and the symbiotic relationship between past and present in urban design.

Yuan Shikai and the Restoration of Tianjin at the Turn of the Twentieth Century

As one of the most controversial historical figures in modern Chinese history, Yuan Shikai has attracted considerable scholarly attention in recent decades. While Yuan’s diplomatic activity during his presidency of the early Republican era has been well studied, his earlier diplomatic activity during the late Qing period has not received much scholarly discussions in the English-language historiography. This article examines how Yuan negotiated with various imperialist powers over the restoration of Tianjin, as well as over the creation of foreign concessions in the city, at the turn of the twentieth century. It reveals Yuan’s distinctive diplomatic strategies while highlighting his way of positioning himself at the intersection of multiple nodes of power. It argues that Yuan Shikai’s diplomatic maneuvering played an indispensable role in the transformation of Tianjin from a city governed by a colonial administration to a Chinese city with multiple foreign concessions.

Foreign Concessions in Developing Natural Resources of Northeastern RSFSR in 1920s

This article examines the establishment of the state concession policy in the USSR during the 1920s, focusing on its objectives and principles, as well as its expansion into the northeastern regions of the Soviet state. The natural resources of the northeastern territories of Russia had attracted the attention of foreign concessionaires since prerevolutionary times, who established a network of trading representations for the procurement and export of furs, mammoth bones, fish, and various raw materials. In the 1920s, the Soviet state conducted significant work to prepare and approve legislative acts regulating concession activities and aimed at strengthening state influence over them. Special bodies were created to address these issues, including foreign trade departments (Vneshtorg), concession commissions (concesscom), and planning commissions. Through agreements between the Soviet government and foreign companies, concession activities began to yield practical results from the mid1920s. The principles on which it was based aimed to direct foreign economic relations towards the reconstruction of the country's economy. Overall, it can be concluded that the concession policy pursued by the USSR in the 1920s proved successful, playing a significant role in the reconstruction of the national economy after the civil war.

Concession policy of the Soviet state: implementation mechanism

The article analyzes the experience of the concession policy implementation by the RSFSR and the USSR during the 20s of the twentieth century and the approaches used in its framework, which allowed solving simultaneously a wide range of tasks related to the rise of the domestic economy and overcoming foreign policy isolation. This experience of the Soviet state can be used to solve the challenges the Russian Federation is facing today. The authors substantiate that the concession policy of the Soviet state was a rationally constructed mechanism able to solve a number of tasks. 1) Creation of foreign concessions in the Soviet country contributed to withdrawal from the diplomatic blockade declared by Western countries. 2) Through the concession policy the obligations of the Russian Empire to foreign investors were renewed in the conditions of a socialist economy. 3) By creating concessions the Soviet government headed by V.I. Lenin attracted the material and technological resources of the European countries and the USA for the development of the economy of the Soviet country. 4) At concession enterprises models of industrial relations with a high level of labor organization and living conditions of workers were formed at the expense of foreign investors, which then had to be introduced everywhere. 5) The concession policy covered the national suburbs and contributed to unification of the economic potential of the republics as part of the USSR. The analysis of the legal regulation of concession relationships carried out in this article gives reason to suppose that the concession policy of the Soviet state should not be reduced to the NEP because its implementation started earlier. In fact, it was launched with the adoption of the Decree of the Council of People’s Commissars of November 23, 1920 On General Economic and Legal Conditions for Concessions and within its framework a range of tasks that went far beyond the economic recovery envisaged by the NEP through private law principles was solved. Attention should also be paid to the constitutional nature of the regulation of concession legal relations, which was determined by the “Treaty on the USSR Foundation of 1922” and the Constitution of 1924.

Отблеск ушедшего нэпа? Японская нефтяная концессия на Сахалине (1925-1944)

One of the well-established concepts in the understanding of the Soviet period is the consideration of its initial stage in relation to the implementation of the new economic policy (NEP) and the subsequent departure from it. That was reflected in the analysis of the experience of foreign concessions of the 1920s. It is consistently regarded as one of the elements of the NEP. In this article, we proceed from the fact that this concept is a hypothesis that requires verification. To this end, the first section provides a brief overview of the historiography of Soviet concessions. In the second section, the Soviet concession practice in the Far East is placed in the broader context of relations between Russia and Japan. In the third section, based on published and archived data, the main problems in the activities of the Japanese oil concession are considered. The fourth section attempts to conduct a comprehensive assessment of the desired and achieved results of its activities for both parties. In conclusion, two main theoretical conclusions are given. Firstly, the hypothesis according to which the beginning of the concessions was laid by the transition to the NEP, and the end — by its curtailment (due, in turn, to political factors) does not find unambiguous confirmation on the basis of the data considered and needs further verification. Based on this, it can be assumed that the focus on NEP to makes it difficult to analyze the Soviet concession experience. Secondly, concession enterprises for the development of mineral resources in the Far East arose on the basis of the existing balance of power between states. Their functioning, therefore, initially depended on maintaining this balance to a greater extent than on economic efficiency indicators for both sides. This conclusion seems to have more than just historical significance.

The emergence and development of foreign concessions in Marrakech Until 1912

لعل من اهم نتائج الثورة الصناعية في اوربا ، ظهور الحركة الاستعمارية الحديثة مطلع القرن التاسع عشر ، فضلا ً عن اسبابٍ اخرى اقل اهمية ، اندفعت على اثرها الدول الاوربية للتسابق من اجل الحصول على المستعمرات في اسيا وافريقيا وامريكا اللاتينية . واذا كانت مراكش قد نفذت من الخضوع للسيطرة العثمانية الا انها ظلت محط انظار التنافس الاستعماري الاوربي لما تمتلكه ُ من موقع ستراتيجي هام جعلها في صلب اهتمامات الدول الاستعمارية الكبرى . على الرغم من امتلاك مراكش قوة عسكرية مدربة ، ومنظومة تجارية جيدة ، ومردودات مالية كافية ، وقوة سياسية تتمثل ببعض السلاطين الاقوياء والعديد من الوزراء والقادة المخلصين ، الذين حاولوا بناء دولة قوية بعيدة عن التنافس الدولي الا انهم لم يتمكنوا من تحقيق غاياتهم الوطنية بسبب التدخلات الاجنبية السافرة في الشؤون الداخلية المراكشية منذ ُ القرن السابع عشر ولا سيما فرنسا واسبانيا . فقد احتلت اسبانيا العديد من الموانىء والجزر المراكشية ورفضت التخلي عنها لانها تعد مراكش جزء من الاراضي الاسبانية . وعادت بريطانيا مطلع القرن الثامن عشر لاحتلال مدينة طنجة ورفضت الجلاء عنها لاسباب جيوستراتيجية . اما فرنسا فقد كانت تتطلع لاحتلال المغرب العربي باكمله ولا سيما بعد احتلال الجزائر عام 1830م . عانت مراكش خلال القرن التاسع عشر من مشاكل حقيقية جراء التنافس الدولي على اراضيها واتسعت هذه المشاكل باتساع عدد الدول المتنافسة للحصول على اكبر قدر ممكن من الامتيازات والتسهيلات التي تمنحها مراكش لهذه الدول . فدخلت مراكش جراء ذلك ، في دوامة المعاهدات المفروضة عليها من الدول الاوربية وتفاقمت معها المطاليب الاوربية التي كانت تستهدف منح رعاياها المُقيمين في مراكش امتيازات وتسهيلات تماثل ما يحصلون عليه ِ من حقوق طبيعية في دولهم . فأمتدت الايادي الاجنبية لتقتطع مساحة واسعة من السلطة المراكشية في امور القضاء والاحوال المدنية والميراث وامتيازات تجارية واسعة لصالح الرعايا الاجانب ، ولم تكتف ِ بذلك ، ففرضت نظام الحماية على الكثير من السكان المحليين ، وبذلك فقدت السلطة المراكشية سلطتها ليس على الوافدين الاجانب فقط بل شمل ايضا طائفة كبيرة من اهل البلاد .

Minerals In The 3rd Region Of The Eyalet Of The Archipelago (Eyālet-I Cezāyir-I Baḥr-I Sefīd In Ottoman Empire ) And (Capital Flowing Abroad)

Abstract :Eyalet of the Archipelago, one of the most important provinces of the Ottoman Empire, had sanjaks consisting of the islands of Lemnos, Mytilene, Rhodes and Chios. The minerals that we will describe, although their boundaries have changed over time, are discussed in the area covering this geography. After being operated by the state during the classical period, Ottoman minerals became the focus of attention of domestic and foreign investors from the second half of the 19th century. Many of the minerals in the province we have discussed have not yet been fully determined. We see that foreigners generally aspire to minerals on the islands opened for operation. Although the state did not find it appropriate to give the operation of the mines to foreigners; determined the conditions in the specifications and regulations and granted the mining concessions. The salterns in the sanjaks were also determined. Although the operating conditions and tax rates of the mines were determined by the state, some of the mines were not operated and the state canceled the privilege of the mines in cases where taxes were not paid. In the article, all kinds of documents reflected in the archive regarding the locations, usage areas, operating privileges, taxation, export areas of the minerals in the Eyalet of the Archipelago are explained in the traces of the documents found in the Ottoman Archives of the Presidency State Archives. In the article, the material wealth of the Ottoman Empire flowing abroad with the privileges given to foreigners in the context of mines, which was one of the basic wheels of the economy, from the sanjaks to the villages and the connected islands is also mentioned. Keywords: Eyalet of the Archipelago, Lemnos - Mytilene - Rhodes and Chios Sanjaks , Mines, Contracts, Foreign Concessions.

A myth of modernity: the market hall reforms in China, 1900s–1940s

AbstractAs a result of the new approach to municipal food supply adopted in European cities, the market hall first appeared in China in the foreign concessions in Shanghai in the late nineteenth century. While some municipal governments across China had stimulated an increase in the number of market halls constructed from the beginning of the early twentieth century, the introduction of market halls did not achieve the effects that the authorities expected. Although market hall reforms in Suzhou, Hangzhou and Chengdu were different in detail, they were similar inasmuch as market halls did not become a regular feature of the daily life of the three cities. However, municipal governments continued to promote the market hall reforms despite their limited achievements and resistance from the public. The main purpose of Chinese municipal governments to promote market halls was not to solve practical problems, but to establish the market hall as a symbol of modernity. While the concessions in Shanghai managed by the westerners had already initiated a form of modernity, other Chinese cities responded by exhibiting a particular appreciation of the myth of modernity, and Chinese cities underwent as swift a process of modernization as the foreign concessions.

A Study on Cultural Urban Regeneration Using Modern Industrial Resources: Focusing on the Site-Specific Cultural Places of Gunsan, South Korea

Gunsan is a port city located on the west coast of South Korea. After the port was opened in 1899, foreign concessions were formed there, and the modern city began to be formed in accordance with Japanese colonial policy. This region grew into a modern port city by exporting rice harvested from the plains in the hinterland to Japan and managed and controlled commercial and industrial products of the surrounding area. Modern industrial facilities such as warehouses, financial, and administration facilities necessary for seizing the food resources for the colony were built there, and Gunsan developed as a hub city in the southwestern region of South Korea during the 1930s. However, after liberation in 1945, the number of modern industrial facilities in this area, which contained traces of Japanese imperialism, gradually declined. In the 2000s, as urbanisation accelerated, the problem of abandoned modern industrial facilities was raised, and the necessity of urban regeneration by utilizing the modern industrial facilities scattered in the original downtown of Gunsan emerged. The purpose of this paper is to examine the regional activation and cultural regeneration of the city by using modern industrial facilities as cultural places and targeting the case of Gunsan, which was developed as a colonial-planned city. In particular, through field studies, this paper examines those cultural spaces, utilising modern industrial facilities that contribute to the formation of regional uniqueness, mediate local communities, and create future values of sustainable cultural regeneration.

Foreign concessions in the USSR textile industry in the 1920s and early 1930s: The public-private partnership experience

Despite the Soviet government’s declarative efforts to engage foreign capital in rebuilding the economy during the 1920s, most concessions did not last long and were liquidated before the respective contracts expired. This article considers the conditions and key outcomes of concession enterprises, as well as the reasons and mechanisms for their premature liquidation, using the textile industry as an example. The main focus is on the indicators and reasons for the high profitability of these enterprises, lending issues and Soviet methods for limiting the growth of foreign concession operator profits.

公案小說과 推理小說 비교 연구

Mystery novels are products of early modern history. Edgar Allen Poe’s mystery novels, among others, were introduced to China during the translation boom of the 1920s. At the time, modern literature found its way into China through the Shanghai foreign concessions. During this era, there were mainly two kinds of readers: those of the intellectual class, who typically read modern literature and those who were ordinary citizens, who typically devoured popular literature such as romance, mystery, and hero stories. Meanwhile, there was a sharp increase in the publication of Chinese mystery novels. Although the Chinese did not invent the mystery genre, it easily gained a foothold in China due to its similarity to the existing gong’an novel. The Chinese versions of the mystery genre were heavily influenced by gong’an novels. The two genres, while still distinct, share many characteristics. This study first defines the origins and terms of the mystery genre. Subsequently, it shows its relationship with the gong’an novel. Finally, it analyzes the differences and similarities between the two styles based on the gong’an elements found in Sanyan and the mystery short stories of Cheng Xiaoqing, a Chinese mystery author active in the 1920s. This comparative analysis includes an examination of characters, descriptions of the investigation process, and narrative characteristics. While Sanyan consists of pictorial novels compiled by Feng Menglong, most of which are gong’an, Hwossangtaman is a popular mystery novel by Cheng Xiaoqing, who translated many mystery stories into Chinese. This comparative study of these two well-known works demonstrates how Chinese gong’an and mystery novels influenced each other.

Creating Public Opinion, Advancing Knowledge, Engaging in Politics: The Local Public Sphere in Chengdu, 1898–1921

AbstractSituated far from coastal cities and foreign concessions, Chengdu yields insights into the role of the local press and its specific publics in the political evolution of the late Qing and early Republic. Despite its remote location, Chengdu developed its own modern press in the late Qing, relying on print entrepreneurs and modern journalists recruited from the ranks of the local literati and traditional sociability, in particular teahouses. They all played a role in forming a modern reading public which came to understand itself as a distinct local political community in dynamic interaction with national politics and transnational networks. The local press evinced three successive but intertwined ideals of publicness: as a link between the state and the people and a vector of enlightenment, as a professional forum for public opinion and as a tool for political mobilization. In solidifying public opinion around the local community, the press served as a forum and catalyst for political activism in the 1911 Railroad Protection movement and the 1919 May Fourth movement, events which were shaped as much by local dynamics as they were by national developments.

Research on the Development of Cities and Architecture in the Open Ports (International Settlements and Foreign Concessions) of East Asia

In the past, to get from one country to another, a long journey on a ship was required. Trade between countries was also done using ships, which transported cargo via shipping routes across the globe. Ports in specific countries accommodated trade, including in East Asia where many were opened as a result of unequal treaties with western powers. Treaty ports were often agreed after western powers such as the UK and nUS defeated military powers in China, Japan and Korea and terms favouring the successful nations were agreed. Foreigners would arrive into the treaty ports, and commodities such as restaurants, foreigners clubs, churches and racecourses were built for these new citizens. Ultimately, colonisation occurred, with areas in China, Japan and Korea being commandeered by Western ways of life. A team of researchers led by Professor An-Suk Son, Research Center for Non Written Cultural Materials, Kanagawa University, Japan, is looking at the open ports of East Asia, investigating the history and architecture of the Japanese consulate, banks, schools, hospitals and spinning companies. A key focus for the researchers is on buildings that were developed during the time of foreign settlement. Previous studies that have been done in this area have tended to focus on Shanghai in China, Yokohama in Japan and Incheon in Korea, and Son's research is innovative in that it uses new materials that have emerged in the years since, such as English newspapers, magazines, pictures, leaflets and photo books. The team also plants to build on previous studies to include places such as Qingdao and Guangzhou.

Chinese History and the National Humiliation Narrative

This note describes how the Chinese Communist Party (CCP), founded in 1949, has attempted to create and maintain an official narrative of the country and regime that tilts toward the favorable and minimizes any negative. A key component of the historical narrative has been China's so-called Century of Humiliation, in which China suffered exploitation at the hands of various other nations. Mistreatment by foreigners resulted in China's being disadvantaged in unequal treaties, being impoverished by outrageous indemnity payments, and suffering territorial losses (e.g., Hong Kong and Macau) and violations of its sovereignty (e.g., foreign concessions). In announcing the founding of the PRC in 1949, CCP Chairman Mao Zedong said, Ours will no longer be a nation subject to insult and humiliation. We have stood up. Reference to the Century of Humiliation and China's refusal to be controlled any longer was meant to inspire and motivate national pride in the Chinese people. In recent years, the influence of the national humiliation narrative has become increasingly apparent in China's international actions. CCP has aggressively responded to perceived offenses by foreign entities, be they governments or companies, with public criticism and mobilization of Chinese netizens. This note was written to accompany The NBA, China, and Social Media: What Are the Rules of the Game? (UVA-E-0459), which outlines the Chinese reaction to 2019 social media posts sympathetic to protestors in Hong Kong. It gives background on the national humiliation narrative and its ongoing influence on China's relationship with its own people and with other nations. Excerpt UVA-E-0461 Jan. 25, 2021 Chinese History and the National Humiliation Narrative When considering the Chinese government's swift and unambiguous reaction to the October 2019 National Basketball Association (NBA) controversy, it is important to take into account the historical, social, and political drivers that have led to similar actions on the part of the Chinese government in the past. Over the past decade, the Chinese government has refined a strongly nationalistic historical narrative that emphasizes past injustices that have been inflicted by foreign powers on China. It has used this interpretation to justify severe responses to foreign actions that it perceives as blatant violations of its sovereignty or insults to the Chinese people. A Traditional Chinese View of History Chinese people take a great deal of ethnic pride in what the nation has accomplished over the span of its numerous dynasties that is, over its 5,000 years of history. Traditional histories include events prior to 3,000BCE, but it is important to realize that most of what is contained in such histories is accounts of mythical beings and legendary rulers. Chinese historical records gradually became more substantial during the first millennium BCE, comprising incomplete annals and associated commentaries; however, it is not until the second century BCE that Sima Qian compiled the first comprehensive history of China which is to a large extent based on the existing traditional histories. While the historical record might be incomplete, domestically there is a commonly accepted understanding of the events that constitute China's history; a view that is perpetuated in public education. . . .

Hybridisation and circulation of models in Tianjin’s former concessions

ABSTRACT The Italian and Wudadao districts in Tianjin, China, are two of the former foreign concessions established in the city during the nineteenth and early twentieth centuries. Listed as historic sites in the late 1990s, they are now undergoing a rehabilitation process mobilised by various municipal agencies. These former concessions have become the most emblematic examples of urban regeneration and exotic heritage reutilisation in Tianjin. In this paper, we examine the preservation and rehabilitation of the former concessions from the perspective of hybridisation. In particular, we analyse the heritage trajectories of the former Italian and British concessions to identify the critical elements and forces that have shaped them. What influence did international actors have in their preservation, restoration and transformation? How did the public authorities position these districts in regard to the cultural context? How did their values and criteria evolve? What models were implemented, and how were they appropriated by local actors? We will show how this semi-colonial heritage has been integrated by the local authorities, real estate stakeholders, conservation associations and residents to produce transnational places that transcend geographies and borders.

Tourism and heritage in the enhancement of Tianjin

This article examines what is being promoted about Tianjin’s rich heritage through its tourism and heritage practices. An industrial city traditionally known for its crafts and gastronomy, Tianjin has gradually begun to promote its Chinese heritage and, since the 2000s, its city centre, which is noteworthy for its former foreign concessions and 19th- and 20th-century architectural heritage. After long neglect, the city centre has become a major component in the promotion of the city. Based on the analysis of tourism materials and studies conducted since the mid-2000s, this article first discusses the development of tourism in Tianjin and the chronology and interweaving of the services involved in heritage development. Then, it focuses on the reception of the city’s tourism offerings and on urban development operations in two sectors, Wudadao (or ‘Five avenues’), located in the former British Concession, and the ‘I-Style Town’ in the former Italian Concession.

CONCESSIONS OF THE 1920s – THE FIRST ATTEMPT
 TO ESTABLISH ECONOMIC RELATIONS WITH THE WEST

The article analyzes the use of concessions to attract foreign capital and technology in an almost complete economic blockade because of the revolution and civil war, as well as the fact that the revolution in other foreign countries has not
 occured. The article indicates particular regulations in the procedure for the infusion of foreign concessions into Soviet Russia. In addition, the paper points out how this
 process gradually developed, as well as what problems arose for western investors in the course of investing their capital in the country. The author shows particular industries that mostly used foreign capital, names donor countries, and provides statistical data on the number of applications for the opening of concessional filed by foreign investors. The paper provides examples of specific concessions. The author draws attention
 to the careful selection of concessionaires, states the principles of concessions’ operation in terms of planned and command economy. The original literature of the 1920s is used in the article. The aticle defines the concessions’ place and
 role in the Russian economy. The author points out that the questions arising between the Soviet power
 and foreign investors concern price policy and employed workers’ compensation that, however, was not typical of all concessions. Moreover, the article provides statistical data concerning the number of contracts concluded in the main sectors of
 the economy and the benefit it brought to the economy, as well as the number of citizens of Soviet Russia involved in the economic activities of foreign concessions.
 The author makes a conclusion that the state policy of concessions was a forced measure aimed at improving the state economic development by attracting foreign capital and technology.