Foreign Assignments Research Articles

Second-Class Citizens or Free Agents? Social Construction of Equity Perceptions of Contractors in Global Offshoring Arrangements

This study examines the ways in which perceptions of equity are socially constructed among contractors involved in global offshoring arrangements. A comparative case study of two global software organizations involved in offshore outsourcing reveals that global contractors across sites constructed different equity perceptions of similar foreign assignments due to a number of contextual factors. These contextual differences combined to produce social comparison processes that led to the construction of different equity perceptions. Drawing on a perceptual model of equity theory, we find that global contractors from one case felt stigmatized and treated inequitably as “second-class citizens”, while those from the other case felt empowered as “free agents.” Our findings contribute a context-sensitive explanation for the construction of different equity perceptions in global offshoring arrangements, with implications for global work design more broadly.

The Effectiveness of Cross-cultural Training on Chinese Expatriates’ Assignments in Mncs in Myanmar

Multinational enterprises employ expatriates to perform foreign assignments in host countries. Expatriates face several challenges when they work in foreign nations due to a need for more proficiency in the local language and communication issues. The effectiveness of MNCs mainly depends on expatriates' performance. There are several Chinese expatriates in Myanmar, and cultural differences can create challenges. This study focuses on analyzing the impact of cross-cultural training on expatriates' assignments using qualitative research methods. Data are collected using interviews and analyzed by content analysis method. The findings show that language problem is a critical issue for all expatriates, and providing cross-cultural training, including language and cultural orientation, can lead to adapting to the host country's culture and developing positive communication with local people. This study suggests providing cross-cultural training for expatriates' effective performance.

Turnover Intentions of IT Repatriates in India: Exploring the Role of Organizational Commitment

The turnover intention of repatriates in the IT sector requires immediate attention due to the rapid rise of India as a global market. To survive in an environment of cut-throat competition, organizations are required to have a proper understanding of the reasons for repatriate turnover in the IT sector and of the solutions to overcome this problem. Factors such as repatriate adjustment, job satisfaction, and organizational commitment are the key to understand the intentions for repatriate turnover. The primary objective of this study was to compare the role of organizational commitment as a mediator and as an independent variable for explaining the intent to leave. Feedback from IT repatriates in Indian organizations were generated. The items of the questionnaires were adapted from various previous studies to generate the relevant data. Data was generated from a sample of 273 respondents. Appropriate tools were employed for the purpose of refining and analysis of data. Study findings supported that organizational commitment role as a mediator is more important than as an independent variable in explaining the intentions of repatriate regarding the turnover. The study will provide useful insights to the practitioners and policymakers in understanding the process of repatriate adjustment and, hence, can assist in reducing the turnover intentions among the repatriates. Indian IT sector faces considerable high attrition. It has been observed that employees after returning from their foreign assignments find it difficult to readjust and thereafter eventually quit the organization. The turnover intention of repatriation in the IT sector requires immediate attention to arrest this kind of attrition. There is a paucity of studies focusing on turnover intention of repatriates in the Indian context. This study aims to fill that gap.

A Review of Cross-Cultural Training Research: The Past 10 Years and Implications for Moving Forward

The increasing globalization of the economy and the expansion of the global market have strengthened the need for cross-cultural training (CCT) research. Regarded as an effective tool to facilitate expatriates’ foreign assignments and achieve organizational performance objectives, CCT should therefore play a significant role in the success or failure of expatriates. Despite, the controversy regarding the effectiveness of CCT on expatriates’ overseas assignments, the past few decades have witnessed an explosion in research pertaining to CCT’s influence on expatriates’ foreign assignments. However, very few reviews consolidating the existing literature pertaining to CCT research field are available. Thus, to ensure effective coverage for the present review, diverse databases have been investigated and keyword searches have been performed to find articles related to the study. Peer-reviewed articles were exclusively selected. Thereby, the principal objective of this paper is to proffer a thorough literature review of CCT research and highlight approaches and tools for practitioners to achieve a more successful CCT program but also introduce the findings of research papers that have been released over the past ten years and provide suggestions for future research.

Periodontal Disease and Tooth Wear in a Sample of German Soldiers with Posttraumatic Stress Disorder.

Dental symptoms of post-traumatic stress disorder (PTSD) patients include a majority of painful temporomandibular joint and masticatory muscle findings, restricted mouth opening, and pronounced attritions. Traumatic occlusal force resulting in injury of the teeth and/or the periodontal attachment apparatus may exceed the adaptive capacity of the individual person or site. This observational cross-sectional study in soldiers with PTSD and a non-PTSD control group after military deployments aimed to evaluate a possible relationship between bruxism and periodontal diagnosis. Ninety-six in-patients and 27 out-patients (21 women, 102 men) with specialist-confirmed PTSD and bruxism after up to 17 foreign assignments, and 36 male non-PTSD controls with up to 15 foreign assignments underwent general dental, functional, and periodontal examinations. All three groups showed no statistically significant differences in terms of age (34.8 ± 8.6 years), number of teeth (n: 26.3 ± 3.4), status of dentition (DMFT 9.7 ± 6.6), incidence of periodontitis (36%) and recessions (n: 5.8 ± 5.7). From the control group to the out-patient group to the in-patient group, the proportion of smokers and tobacco use increased statistically significantly, as did the extent of attrition. In the in-patient group, with statistically significantly lower educational levels, the number of perceived prophylaxis sessions was statistically significantly reduced in the last two years. Taking into account the retrospective recording of the last traumatic event, the average time of five years until therapy does not seem to have any consequences for the frequency and severity of inflammatory periodontal disease, recession, and wedge-shaped defects in soldiers with bruxism in PTSD, regardless of the need for in-patient or out-patient treatment.

Social Support and Well-being among Relocating Women: The Mediating Roles of Resilience and Optimism

The relative lack of research on the relocation of women to foreign assignments prompted this study that focused on a large online community of women in relocation. We examined the relationship between two support types, perceived social support (PSS) and online support, and well-being measures (meaning in life, depression, and loneliness) in the new setting. Based on the literature, we hypothesized that (a) PSS and online support positively relate to personal resilience and optimism, (b) resilience and optimism positively associate with well-being levels, and (c) resilience and optimism mediate the association between both types of support and well-being. Two waves of data (T1 & T2) were collected in the current study. The results largely reflected the propositions, with some deviations from the expected model, and indicated that resilience was the more prominent mediator at both T1 and T2. A complex pattern of relationships was documented between various types of virtual support and well-being. Women who received social support could foster a positive, optimistic future perspective experience and an increased sense of meaning in their lives. This study engendered implications for organizations’ appropriate preparation of relocating staff, in general, and the relocation of women employees, in particular.

Cross-cultural training: a study of European expatriates in New Zealand

PurposeThe purpose of this study is to investigate the cross-cultural training (CCT) provided to European expatriate executives in New Zealand, and consequently add to the knowledge for human resource management in the Australasian region.Design/methodology/approachThe present qualitative research study is based on open-ended and in-depth interviews with 30 European expatriate executives who had been residing in New Zealand for the past year or more.FindingsThe results indicate that at least some CCT was provided to all interviewees; however, the training content seemed to be strongly centered around professional work, with little focus on the culture of the host country. Moreover, there was no follow-up to the pre-departure CCT and very few expatriates in the sample received any training in New Zealand. Similarly, the family is considered a fundamental factor for the success of expatriates; however, in the sample, neither spouses nor children received any training before or after their arrival in New Zealand.Research limitations/implicationsThe research is limited by the sample small size. The study’s inconclusive highlights the need for further research to explore the influences of local residents, colleagues and neighbors on expatriates’ adjustment. Similarly, further studies are also required to ascertain the effectiveness of CCT in helping support expatriates’ performance and adjustment in New Zealand.Practical implicationsThe present study suggests that opportunities do exist for multinational companies (MNCs) to better prepare their expatriates for assignments by integrating more effectively issues related to cultural awareness into their CCT. Specifically, experimental CCT methods that emphasize the host country’s culture are most valuable. The CCT technique should be tailored to the cultural distance between the host nation and expatriates’ country of origin and to the nature of their assignment.Originality/valueGiven the existence of many MNCs in New Zealand, it is surprising that the issue of CCT in this context has received little research attention. The current study endeavors to address this gap. This paper hopes that the findings may also be useful for consultants and human resource managers in MNCs who are involved in preparing expatriates for foreign assignments in Australasia, especially New Zealand.

Expatriate spouse adjustment: an analysis of challenges facing western female expatriate spouses in the United Arab Emirates

The present study endeavours to strengthen the existing knowledge by investigating factors impacting the adjustment process of the western female expatriate spouses of the expatriates on their international assignments in the United Arab Emirates (UAE). We have conducted a qualitative research with 15 western expatriate female spouses who were relocated due to their husbands' international assignments in the UAE. The core findings reinforce the results of previous studies and this should be viewed as a warning signal for MNCs trying to expand their operations in the Middle East and in the UAE in particular. In this region, MNCs need to initiate support practices for expatriate spouses, as failure to do so could jeopardise their expansion activities in countries like the UAE. This has implications for training as well as for the management of foreign assignments and it creates new avenues for research on expatriate management.

How host organizations prepare for and learn from expatriate assignments

AbstractThis article reveals what goes on inside host organizations prior to and during expatriate assignments. On the basis of analyzing organizational documents and conducting 43 interviews with host country nationals (HCNs) and expatriates in 30 Vietnamese organizations that host external foreign assignments, we provide a detailed account of HCNs' experiences and unearth sophisticated preparation and management activities designed to maximize these organizations' learning. We depict what we call “a host organization lifecycle” and extract five lessons: (a) host organizations prepare carefully in advance to learn as much as possible from expatriates; (b) HCNs experience quite dramatic adjustments and burdens during expatriates' placements; (c) mutual trust between expatriates and HCNs is a prerequisite for HCNs' learning; (d) most of HCNs' learning occurs informally via interactions with expatriates or observing how they work; (e) host organization managers actively manage HCN–expatriate relationships. Our findings outline a “wish list” of practices that expatriate‐using organizations could consider deploying for expatriate assignments that focus on the benefit of the host organization' development.

Understanding paternalistic leadership: a guide for managers considering foreign assignments

Purpose The purpose of this article is to help employees trained in Western business practice who move to different countries for work and encounter leaders who display paternalistic leadership as their main leadership style. by providing an explanation of paternalistic leadership and practical advice. Design/methodology/approach The article is based on a literature review on paternalistic leadership and in qualitative data collected for research on paternalistic leadership practices. Findings The article explains the main characteristic of paternalistic leadership and provides the reader with practical advice . Originality/value This paper provides the reader with a non-western perspective on leadership and advice for employees on what to expect and what to do when working with a paternalistic leader

Utilizing the U-Curve Model to Assess Cross-Cultural Training Programs for Low Context Expatriates Working in a High Context Culture

This study investigated the adequacy of cross-cultural programs to prepare expatriates to work in high context culture. Lysgaard (1955) U- curve adjustment theory was used as a logical theoretical platform for discussing the cross-cultural adjustment process for the expatriates in the pre-departure and post arrival stages. Results from empirical studies highlighted that five elements that should be included in the cross-cultural training programs. The five elements of anticipatory adjustment, cultural distance, cultural congruency, modes and methods and cultural diversity training would make training programs more suitable and be instrumental in improving expatriate’s performance and completion of foreign assignments.

Association Between Symptoms of Posttraumatic Stress Disorder and Signs of Temporomandibular Disorders in the General Population.

To estimate the association between signs of temporomandibular disorders (TMD) and symptoms of posttraumatic stress disorder (PTSD) in a representative sample from the general population of northeastern Germany. Signs of TMD were assessed with a clinical functional analysis that included palpation of the temporomandibular joints (TMJs) and masticatory muscles. PTSD was assessed with the PTSD module of the Structured Clinical Interview for the Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders, ed 4. The change-in-estimate method for binary logistic regression models was used to determine the final model and control for confounders. After the exclusion of subjects without prior traumatic events, the sample for joint pain consisted of 1,673 participants with a median age of 58.9 years (interquartile range 24.8), and the sample for muscle pain consisted of 1,689 participants with a median age of 59.1 years (interquartile range 24.8). Of these samples, 84 participants had pain on palpation of the TMJ, and 42 participants had pain on palpation of the masticatory muscles. Subjects having clinical PTSD (n = 62) had a 2.56-fold increase in joint pain (odds ratio [OR] = 2.56; 95% confidence interval [CI]: 1.14 to 5.71, P = .022) and a 3.86-fold increase (OR = 3.86; 95% CI: 1.51 to 9.85, P = .005) in muscle pain compared to subjects having no clinical PTSD. These results should encourage general practitioners and dentists to acknowledge the role of PTSD and traumatic events in the diagnosis and therapy of TMD, especially in a period of international migration and military foreign assignments.

Expanding horizons and expatriate adjustment

PurposeExpatriate management is a popular theme in the field of international human resource management in light of the fact that expatriates play a crucial role in a MNC’s global operations. The purpose of this paper is to explore how MNCs select, train, deploy and support expatriate managers during and after their international assignment in the United Arab Emirates (UAE).Design/methodology/approachThis qualitative study is based on in-depth interviews with 22 Western expatriate managers who are presently based in the UAE. However, in order the ensure a diverse sample among the participants with regards to their age, professional experience, gender and nationality, purposeful sampling was utilized while selecting the participants.FindingsThe results of the present study cast light on many shortcomings of the overall expatriation process as they are implemented by MNCs in the UAE. Accordingly, there is a pressing need for MNCs in the UAE to develop strategic expatriation processes, involving the following critical factors: the selection of the right person for the right job; specific and relevant pre-departure and post-arrival cross-cultural training (CCT); practical support for the expatriate employees and their trailing spouses in the host country; and lastly, a clear repatriation strategy to mark a successful conclusion of foreign assignments in the UAE.Research limitations/implicationsIt is acknowledged that the results of this purely qualitative study, based on a relatively small sample size, cannot claim to represent the management theories, practices and realities of all the Western MNCs in the UAE. Moreover, these findings narrate the views and perceptions of this particular cohort of expatriate executives with relation to their selection, pre-departure CCT, adjustment in the UAE and the support and repatriation policies utilized by their companies for doing business in the UAE.Practical implicationsThis study points to the fact that technical skills are mostly considered to be the predominant selection criteria for the expatriate selections in the MNCs. Other abilities, such as language skills and relational and perceptual adjustability are considered to be less important and do not feature overtly in the selection criteria for expatriate positions. The results demonstrate that distinctive features of adjustability, which include expatriates’ willingness to communicate, their social orientation, dynamic anxiety resistance and openness ability are all critical to the adjustment in the host country and should be given more emphasis.Originality/valueRegardless of the presence of numerous MNCs in the UAE, it is indeed surprising to see that the topic of the expatriation management process in MNCs in the UAE has received little research attention. The objective of this study is to address this deficiency. Additionally, it is hoped that these findings may also be valuable to MNCs and consultants who are preparing expatriates for international assignments, especially in the Middle East and in particular in the UAE.

The effect of cross-cultural training on expatriates’ adjustment

PurposeOne of the most important issues multinational corporations (MNCs) face in their global operations is expatriate failure. It is estimated that between 10 and 80 percent of expatriates sent on overseas assignments return home early. The purpose of this paper is to investigate the impact of cross-cultural training (CCT) on different facets of expatriate managers’ adjustment in Nigeria.Design/methodology/approachA sample of 212 western expatriate managers working in Nigeria was surveyed. Respondents were selected from four cities where they had been working for at least one year.FindingsThe main finding of this study was that expatriates’ adjustment could be predicted from different types of CCT. The findings of this research confirm the view expressed by researchers over the last two decades that both conventional and specific experimental CCT have positive effect on the facets of cross-cultural adjustment.Research limitations/implicationsGiven that the authors did not collect their data over time, the cross-sectional nature of the design limits them from making definitive causal statements. In the future, more resources and efforts could be applied to safeguard larger samples of respondents, thus potentially resulting in better statistical power. A longitudinal approach could be used; such an approach may have generated a richer data source, where different patterns of adjustment could have been identified and compared over time. Data for the study were collected through questionnaire, thus any observed relations might be due in part to common method effects. Since the data were collected from four cities, there may be some concern as to the generalizability of the findings to expatriates working in other cities in Nigeria.Practical implicationsMNCs should pay more attention to CCT and management development. Ineffective CCT and management development have an adverse impact on MNCs’ effectiveness. Developing CCT programs could add value to corporations and employees especially employees who are destined for foreign assignments. In addition, developing CCT for expatriates’ spouses and children would facilitate adjustment process and may reduce failure rate.Originality/valueOnce corroborated by further studies, this exploratory research may contribute to the understanding of the adjustment of western expatriates in Nigeria. Few, if any, prior studies, have examined CCT and expatriate adjustment in Nigeria.

Training U.S. Managers for Distant Shores

Proper pre-departure training and post-arrival mentoring of US managers who are assigned for distant and culturally and operationally different countries are vital for their success in their foreign assignment. Training them for foreign assignments is vital because they will be overwhelmed by an onslaught of diverse challenges of their tasks and unfamiliar operating and cultural situations, all of which will confound even the most capable domestic manager. Supervisory and decision making situations will be different from the home country situations with which they are so used to working before they left for the foreign shores. Specifically, they must cope and better manage their personally challenging issues, which are their own personal anxiety and stress arising out of unfamiliar situations that defy the cause-effect logic they were used to in their home countries, the foreign country’s unfamiliar environment causing perceived environmental uncertainty, their own personal flexibility and adaptation, communicating and leading with empathy in host country cultures, and self-efficacy and their own sustained drive for continuously working long hours to accomplish their own personal career goals and the foreign subsidiary’s objectives.

Short-Term-Effectiveness of a Relationship Education Program for Distressed Military Couples, in the Context of Foreign Assignments for the German Armed Forces. Preliminary Findings From a Randomized Controlled Study.

This study examines the short-term effectiveness of a relationship education program designed for military couples. Distressed couples were randomly placed in either a wait-list control group or an intervention group. We conducted training sessions before a 3-month foreign assignment, and refresher courses approximately 6-week post-assignment. We analyzed the dyadic data of 32 couples, using hierarchical linear modeling in a two-level model. Reduction in unresolved conflicts was found in the intervention group, with large pre-post effects for both partners. Relationship satisfaction scores were improved, with moderate-to-large effects only for soldiers, rather than their partners. Post-follow-up effect sizes suggested further improvement in the intervention group. Future research should examine the long-term effectiveness of this treatment.

Research on U.S. Military Women: Recruitment and Retention Challenges and Strategies.

To examine literature on recruitment and retention of military women in research studies as an underrepresented, and potentially marginalized, population. A literature search was conducted to examine challenges, identify potential barriers and facilitators, and to inform strategies for recruitment and retention of military women in research studies. This search was supplemented by findings in military-specific databases and discussions with Military Women's Health Research Interest Group subject matter experts. Ten articles addressed research recruitment and retention challenges and strategies in marginalized/underrepresented populations, providing an effective context to inform research recruitment and retention in military settings. Research with military women is often challenged by logistical, cultural, social, ethical, and methodological issues, which may hinder exploration of potentially sensitive issues. Researchers must consider military-specific challenges to conducting research that include lengthy deployments, unpredictable military exercises, and foreign assignments, in accessing research participants. A case example shows strategies used in a military cervical cancer screening study. There are few published articles specific to research recruitment and retention in female military populations. Available resources broadly address recruitment challenges for Veterans, marginalized, hard-to-access, and transient research participants, which may provide guidance and strategies for success when applied to military populations.

Adjustment in Western European overseas assignments

Purpose – The purpose of this study is to assess differences between the adjustment of expatriates in Germany and France. Most research has focused on the individual in relation to expatriate adjustment. The general conditions of the host country, however, could represent an important contextual factor that needs to be explored further. Design/methodology/approach – Based on an empirical study of 130 expatriate managers on foreign assignments in France (61) and Germany (69), the authors take a comparative perspective and examine differences for sociocultural and psychological adjustment as well as time to proficiency in both countries. Findings – The authors found that expatriates assigned to France show higher degrees of work adjustment and general adjustment than those in Germany. This was unexpected as Germany is generally described as a more transparent, open and welcoming country. Results may thus challenge stereotypical conceptions of national differences and indicate that globalization processes ar...

Expatriates’ willingness to adjust their symbolic leadership abroad. An analysis of how culture affects expatriates’ use of symbolic interaction

Purpose– The purpose of this paper is to analyze the relation between perceived cultural distances and the willingness to adjust symbolic leadership by expatriates. Further, it is asked whether this adjustment has the potential to increase their acceptance as leader by the foreign workforce.Design/methodology/approach– The research derives testable propositions from symbolic leadership theory and the theory about cultural distance and transfers them into a structural equation model in order to identify the impact of cultural distance on expatriates’ adjustment effort. Therefore, an empirical investigation among German expatriates in the Philippines was conducted.Findings– The study contributes to the understanding of symbolic leadership in several unique ways. It is found that there is a relationship between perceived cultural distance and a willingness for symbolic leadership behavior in order to reduce social sanctions caused by unappropriated symbolism. The study shows that willingness to adopt foreign symbols does not lead to an increased acceptance.Originality/value– This research implies that the willingness alone is not sufficient if the appropriate cultural knowledge and required skills do not exist. Thus, this study points to the importance of expatriates’ cultural knowledge for the success of foreign assignments.

Context matters: Acculturation and work-related outcomes of self-initiated expatriates employed by foreign vs. local organizations

Research on various outcomes of foreign assignments has seldom involved the specific organizational context. This study examines the acculturation of self-initiated expatriates in local and foreign-owned organizations. Based on the choice-within-constraints framework in new institutional theory, we propose that self-initiated expatriate academics in local organizations are better adjusted to general life and interaction with host country nationals than their counterparts in foreign-owned organizations. We also suggest that, due to limited available human cognitive capacity, the adjustment of expatriate academics with regard to general life and interaction in the two types of organizations has different consequences for work-related outcomes. Specifically, we hypothesize that for expatriates in foreign organizations, general adjustment is positively associated with work-related outcomes while, for expatriates in local organizations, interaction adjustment is instead positively associated with their work-related outcomes. Based on 210 self-initiated expatriate academics in China and Taiwan, our findings generally provide support for these hypothesized relationships. By demonstrating the role of organization type in expatriate adjustment we contribute to the use of social learning theory in this area) arguing that acculturation should not be perceived to occur in a vacuum. Rather the adjustment patterns of expatriates are affected by the social and institutional context.