For Free Electron Laser Research Articles

First operation of the JUNGFRAU detector in 16-memory cell mode at European XFEL

The JUNGFRAU detector is a well-established hybrid pixel detector developed at the Paul Scherrer Institut (PSI) designed for free-electron laser (FEL) applications. JUNGFRAU features a charge-integrating dynamic gain switching architecture, with three different gain stages and 75 μm pixel pitch. It is widely used at the European X-ray Free-Electron Laser (EuXFEL), a facility which produces high brilliance X-ray pulses at MHz repetition rate in the form of bursts repeating at 10 Hz. In nominal configuration, the detector utilizes only a single memory cell and supports data acquisition up to 2 kHz. This constrains the operation of the detector to a 10 Hz frame rate when combined with the pulsed train structure of the EuXFEL. When configured in so-called burst mode, the JUNGFRAU detector can acquire a series of images into sixteen memory cells at a maximum rate of around 150 kHz. This acquisition scheme is better suited for the time structure of the X-rays as well as the pump laser pulses at the EuXFEL. To ensure confidence in the use of the burst mode at EuXFEL, a wide range of measurements have been performed to characterize the detector, especially to validate the detector alibration procedures. In particular, by analyzing the detector response to varying photon intensity (so called ‘intensity scan’), special attention was given to the characterization of the transitions between gain stages. The detector was operated in both dynamic gain switching and fixed gain modes. Results of these measurements indicate difficulties in the characterization of the detector dynamic gain switching response while operated in burst mode, while no major issues have been found with fixed gain operation. Based on this outcome, fixed gain operation mode with all the memory cells was used during two experiments at EuXFEL, namely in serial femtosecond protein crystallography and Kossel lines measurements. The positive outcome of these two experiments validates the good results previously obtained, and opens the possibility for a wider usage of the detector in burst operation mode, although compromises are needed on the dynamic range.

Studies of self-design taper algorithms for free-electron lasers with planar and helical undulators

The article presents a numerical study of self-design taper algorithms for free-electron lasers (FELs) with planar and helical undulators. Tapering is a technique that changes the undulator parameters in order to increase the efficiency and the radiation power in FELs. Undulator tapering is one of the methods for designing multi-terawatt X-ray FELs (XFELs), which are necessary for research in the field of non-linear optics and 3D bioimaging. In this article, we study methods to optimize the taper profile K(z) that can enhance the efficiency of extracting energy from the electron beam in FELs with planar and helical undulators. Using the numerical code we apply the Kroll–Morton–Rosenbluth (KMR) model and its modification to a case of the FEL at the MAX IV Laboratory, as well as a case of the European XFEL, compare our results with previous ones and discuss the new results. The program was validated on the PAL-XFEL experiment. The application of the modified KMR method for FELs with helical undulators is also studied.

Highly efficient ultra-low blaze angle multilayer grating.

We have developed an advanced process for blaze angle reduction of x-ray gratings for the soft, tender, and EUV spectral ranges. The process is based on planarization of an anisotropically etched Si blazed grating followed by a chemically selective plasma etch. This provides a way to adjust the blaze angle to any lower value with high accuracy. Here we demonstrate the reduction of the blaze angle to an extremely low value of 0.04°±0.004°. For a 100 lines/mm grating with a Mo/Si multilayer coating, the grating exhibits diffraction efficiency of 58% in the 1st diffraction order at a wavelength of 13.3 nm. This technique will be applicable to a wide range of uses of high efficiency gratings for synchrotron sources, as well as for Free Electron Lasers (FEL).

Experimental evidence of intrabeam scattering in a free-electron laser driver

The effect of multiple small-angle Coulomb scattering, or intrabeam scattering (IBS) is routinely observed in electron storage rings over the typical damping time scale of milliseconds. So far, IBS has not been observed in single pass electron accelerators because charge density orders of magnitude higher than in storage rings would be needed. We show that such density is now available at high brightness electron linacs for free-electron lasers (FELs). We report measurements of the beam energy spread in the FERMI linac in the presence of the microbunching instability, which are consistent with a revisited IBS model for single pass systems. We also show that neglecting the hereby demonstrated effect of IBS in the parameter range typical of seeded VUV and soft x-ray FELs, results in too conservative a facility design, or failure to realise the accessible potential performance. As an example, an optimization of the FERMI parameters driven by an experimentally benchmarked model, opens the door to the extension of stable single spectral line emission to the water window (2.3–4.4 nm), with far-reaching implications for experiments in a variety of disciplines, ranging from physics and chemistry to biology and material sciences, and including nonlinear x-ray optics based on the four-wave-mixing approach.

FEL performance achieved at PAL-XFEL using a three-chicane bunch compression scheme.

PAL-XFEL utilizes a three-chicane bunch compression (3-BC) scheme (the very first of its kind in operation) for free-electron laser (FEL) operation. The addition of a third bunch compressor allows for more effective mitigation of coherent synchrotron radiation during bunch compression and an increased flexibility of system configuration. Start-to-end simulations of the effects of radiofrequency jitter on the electron beam performance show that using the 3-BC scheme leads to better performance compared with the two-chicane bunch compression scheme. Together with the high performance of the linac radiofrequency system, it enables reliable operation of PAL-XFEL with unprecedented stability in terms of arrival timing, pointing and intensity; an arrival timing jitter of better than 15 fs, a transverse position jitter of smaller than 10% of the photon beam size, and an FEL intensity jitter of smaller than 5% are consistently achieved.

Conceptual study and design of A C-band photocathode injector

A C-band photocathode injector composed of a 3.6-cell C-band photocathode RF gun and two 1.8-m C-band accelerating structures is proposed. The injector is a low emittance electron source for free electron lasers (FEL) and other compact light sources. The RF structure of the cavities is designed with 2D SUPERFISH simulation. The beam dynamic study in ASTRA helps rectify the 2D RF simulation. To feed the cavities, a design of extracoaxial coupler with RF gun structure is presented. With compact focusing solenoids, for 0.25 nC bunch charge, the final energy can reach 6.9 MeV energy and the 95% emittance can be as low as 0.23 mm mrad (95%). All the details of RF design and beam dynamics studies are presented in this paper, and the design satisfied the requirements of FEL and other applications.

Advances in numerical methods under wiggler period averaging for free electron laser simulation

Advances in numerical methods for free-electron-laser (FEL) simulation under wiggler period averaging (WPA) are presented. First, WPA is generalized using the perturbative Lie map method. The conventional WPA is identified as the leading order contribution. Next, the shot-noise model under WPA is improved along with a particle migration scheme across the numerical mesh. The artificial shot noise arising from particle migration is suppressed. The improved model also allows using arbitrary mesh size, slippage resolution, and integration step size. These advances will improve modeling of longitudinal beam profile evolution for fast FEL simulation.

Operation and performance of the JUNGFRAU photon detector during first FEL and synchrotron experiments

JUNGFRAU is a hybrid pixel photon detector developed at the Paul Scherrer Institut for free electron laser (FEL) and synchrotron applications. A charge integrating detector, JUNGFRAU features three automatically switching gains per pixel which adjust the amplification factor to the amount of deposited charge. This enables single photon sensitivity, while ensuring a dynamic range over four orders of magnitude. Each detector module consists of eight 256×256 pixel ASICs bump-bonded to a single 320 μm thick silicon sensor, resulting in half a million pixels of 75 μm pitch arranged in 1024×512 arrays for a sensitive area of approximately 8×4 cm2. Modules can be combined in various configurations to produce larger systems. These proceedings present the required steps, both operational and in terms of data processing, necessary to perform experiments with the JUNGFRAU detector. This includes the calculation and application of pedestal and gain corrections and the geometric arrangement of the recorded image. Examples of these techniques in action will be presented from the first experiments performed with JUNGFRAU detectors; the pilot experiment of the SwissFEL Bernina beamline and proof-of-principle macromolecular crystallography measurements from the X06SA beamline of the Swiss Light Source. Successful operation and data processing methods from FEL and synchrotron facilities will be compared and contrasted, and experience of overcoming challenges in the two scenarios will be shared. Finally, the capability of JUNGFRAU for FEL and synchrotron applications will be demonstrated.

Microbunching instability study in a linac-driven free electron laser spreader beam line

Suppression of the microbunching instability is a priority for free electron lasers (FELs) whose goal is production of intense coherent radiation with very narrow spectral bandwidth. The instability can have large gain in multibend switchyard lines that connect the accelerator to multiple undulator lines. This study provides practical guidelines for switchyard optics designs that are largely immune to microbunching growth. A case study of the FERMI FEL switchyard is illustrated, resulting in an improved optics design that provides a unity microbunching gain while preserving the electron beam brightness. The analytical computation of the gain for the improved optics is supported by simulations and by experimental results.

Compact bolometric radiometer for free-electron lasers in a wavelength range from extreme-ultraviolet to x-rays.

A reliable diagnostic device for free-electron lasers (FELs) is essential for both users and the evaluation of FEL sources and beamline optics. Here, we propose a compact bolometric radiometer (CBR) that can operate at room temperature. The CBR is mainly designed for FELs in the wavelength range from the extreme-ultraviolet (EUV) to x-rays; moreover, we confirmed that the proposed device can also be applied to synchrotron radiation. As an application of the CBR, we evaluated an FEL beamline transmission by means of bolometric technique in the EUV range for the first time, to the best of our knowledge. This indicates that the CBR is an effective diagnostic device for FELs.

Free-electron laser emission architecture impact on extreme ultraviolet lithography

Laser-produced plasma (LPP) EUV sources have demonstrated ∼125 W at customer sites, establishing confidence in EUV lithography (EUVL) as a viable manufacturing technology. However, for extension to the 3-nm technology node and beyond, existing scanner/source technology must enable higher-NA imaging systems (requiring increased resist dose and providing half-field exposures) and/or EUV multipatterning (requiring increased wafer throughput proportional to the number of exposure passes). Both development paths will require a substantial increase in EUV source power to maintain the economic viability of the technology, creating an opportunity for free-electron laser (FEL) EUV sources. FEL-based EUV sources offer an economic, high-power/single-source alternative to LPP EUV sources. Should FELs become the preferred next-generation EUV source, the choice of FEL emission architecture will greatly affect its operational stability and overall capability. A near-term industrialized FEL is expected to utilize one of the following three existing emission architectures: (1) self-amplified spontaneous emission, (2) regenerative amplifier, or (3) self-seeding. Model accelerator parameters are put forward to evaluate the impact of emission architecture on FEL output. Then, variations in the parameter space are applied to assess the potential impact to lithography operations, thereby establishing component sensitivity. The operating range of various accelerator components is discussed based on current accelerator performance demonstrated at various scientific user facilities. Finally, comparison of the performance between the model accelerator parameters and the variation in parameter space provides a means to evaluate the potential emission architectures. A scorecard is presented to facilitate this evaluation and provides a framework for future FEL design and enablement for EUVL applications.

Temporal profile measurements of relativistic electron bunch based on wakefield generation

A complete characterization of the time-resolved longitudinal beam phase space is important to optimize the final performances of an accelerator, and in particular this is crucial for Free Electron Laser (FEL) facilities. In this paper we propose a novel method to characterize the profile of a relativistic electron bunch by passively streaking the beam using its self-interaction with the transverse wakefield excited by the bunch itself passing off-axis through a dielectric-lined or a corrugated waveguide. Results of a proof-of-principle experiment at the SwissFEL Injector Test Facility are discussed.

Interference effects in angular streaking with a rotating terahertz field

A method of angular streaking with a rotating terahertz electric field for photoelectrons produced by femtosecond extreme ultraviolet pulses is suggested and theoretically analyzed. The method can be used for free electron laser (FEL) pulse characterization on a shot-to-shot basis. It is shown that in related measurements an interesting phenomenon appears: formation of very bright and sharp features in the angular resolved electron spectra measured in the plane perpendicular to the collinear beam direction. These features are similar to the conventional caustics in the wave propagation. The caustics are accompanied by a well-developed interference structure. The intensity distribution along the caustic is determined by the envelope of the FEL pulse.

Tailoring the emissive properties of photocathodes through materials engineering: Ultra-thin multilayers

We report on an experimental verification that emission properties of photocathodes can be manipulated through the engineering of the surface electronic structure. Ultrathin multilayered MgO/Ag(001)/MgO films were grown by pulsed laser deposition, tuning the thickness n of the flanking MgO layers to 0, 2, 3, and 4 monolayers. We observed an increase in quantum efficiency and simultaneous decrease in work function with layer thickness. The scale and trend direction of measurements are in good but not excellent agreement with theory. Angle resolved photoemission data for the multilayered sample n=3 showed that the emission profile has a metallic-like momentum dispersion. Deviations from theoretical predictions [K. Németh et al., PRL 104, 046801 (2010)] are attributed to imperfections of real surfaces in contrast with the ideal surfaces of the calculation. Photoemissive properties of cathodes are critical for electron beam applications such as photoinjectors for Free Electron Lasers (FEL) and Energy Recovery Linacs (ERL). An ideal photoemitter has a high quantum efficiency, low work function, low intrinsic emittance and long lifetime. It has been demonstrated here that emission properties may be systematically tailored by control of layer thickness in ultrathin multilayered structures. The reproducibility of the emission parameters under specific growth conditions is excellent, even though the interfaces themselves have varying degrees of roughness.

Eigenmode analysis of a high-gain free-electron laser based on a transverse gradient undulator

The use of a transverse gradient undulator (TGU) is viewed as an attractive option for free-electron lasers (FELs) driven by beams with a large energy spread. By suitably dispersing the electron beam and tilting the undulator poles, the energy spread effect can be substantially mitigated. However, adding the dispersion typically leads to electron beams with large aspect ratios. As a result, the presence of higher-order modes in the FEL radiation can become significant. To investigate this effect, we study the eigenmode properties of a TGU-based, high-gain FEL, using both an analytically-solvable model and a variational technique. Our analysis, which includes the fundamental and the higher-order FEL eigenmodes, can provide an estimate of the mode content for the output radiation. This formalism also enables us to study the trade-off between FEL gain and transverse coherence. Numerical results are presented for a representative soft X-ray, TGU FEL example.

Harmonic generation by ultrarelativistic electrons in a planar undulator and the emission-line broadening

We present an analytical treatment of the undulator radiation (UR), accounting for major sources of the spectral-line broadening, for example, the beam energy spread, the emittance, and a constant magnetic field, additional to the ideal periodic fields. The examples of high harmonic generation in one- and two-frequency undulators are considered with account for homogeneous and inhomogeneous broadening in real devices. Qualitative estimations are given as well as the exact analytical expressions for the UR spectrum, and intensity are obtained and simplified in the case of high-energy electrons. The compensation of the divergency by the constant magnetic field is demonstrated in the analytical form. The application for free-electron lasers (FEL) is demonstrated and compared with the radiation of a FEL on the supposition of an ideal undulator.

Remote two-color optical-to-optical synchronization between two passively mode-locked lasers.

Using balanced detection in both the radio frequency (RF) and the optical domain, we remotely synchronize the repetition rate of a Ti:sapphire oscillator to an Er-doped fiber oscillator through a 360 m length-stabilized dispersion compensated fiber link. The drift between these two optical oscillators is 3.3 fs root mean square (rms) over 24 hours. The 68 MHz Er-doped fiber oscillator is locked to a 476 MHz local RF reference clock, and serves as a master clock to distribute 10 fs-level timing signals through stabilized fiber links. This steady remote two-color optical-to-optical synchronization is an important step toward an integrated femtosecond fiber timing distribution system for free-electron lasers (FELs); it does not require x-ray pulses, and it makes sub-10-fs optical/x-ray pump-probe experiments feasible.

Experimental Demonstration of Energy-Chirp Compensation by a Tunable Dielectric-Based Structure

A tunable energy-chirp compensator was used to remove a correlated energy chirp from the 60-MeV beam at the Brookhaven National Laboratory Accelerator Test Facility. The compensator operates through the interaction of the wakefield of the electron bunch with itself and consists of a planar structure comprised of two alumina bars with copper-plated backs separated by an adjustable beam aperture. By changing the gap size, the correlated energy chirp of the electron bunch was completely removed. Calculations show that this device, properly scaled to account for the electron bunch charge and length, can be used to remove residual correlated energy spread at the end of the linacs used for free-electron lasers. The experimental results are shown to be in good agreement with numerical simulations. Application of this technique can significantly simplify linac design and improve free-electron lasers performance.

Suppression of Microbunching Instability Using Bending Magnets in Free-Electron-Laser Linacs

The microbunching instability driven by collective effects of the beam inside an accelerator can significantly degrade the final electron beam quality for free electron laser (FEL) radiation. In this Letter, we propose an inexpensive scheme to suppress such an instability in accelerators for next generation FEL light sources. Instead of using an expensive device such as a laser heater or RF deflecting cavities, this scheme uses longitudinal mixing associated with the transverse spread of the beam through bending magnets inside the accelerator transport system to suppress the instability. The final uncorrelated energy spread increases roughly by the current compression factor, which is important in seeded FEL schemes in order to achieve high harmonic short-wavelength x-ray radiation.

Two dimensional model for coherent synchrotron radiation

Understanding coherent synchrotron radiation (CSR) effects in a bunch compressor requires an accurate model accounting for the realistic beam shape and parameters. We extend the well-known 1D CSR analytic model into two dimensions and develop a simple numerical model based on the Li\'enard-Wiechert formula for the CSR field of a coasting beam. This CSR numerical model includes the 2D spatial dependence of the field in the bending plane and is accurate for arbitrary beam energy. It also removes the singularity in the space charge field calculation present in a 1D model. Good agreement is obtained with 1D CSR analytic result for free electron laser (FEL) related beam parameters but it can also give a more accurate result for low-energy/large spot size beams and off-axis/transient fields. This 2D CSR model can be used for understanding the limitation of various 1D models and for benchmarking fully electromagnetic multidimensional particle-in-cell simulations for self-consistent CSR modeling.