Footprint Length Research Articles

Analysis of very small-small theropod footprints data from Imilchil tracksite (Hig Central Atlas. Morocco). A concordance model for a global scale

In the ensemble of theropod footprints from the Imilchil macrosite, a group of small size separated from the rest is distinguished. We had detected this grouping in other sites studied by our team in La Rioja and in the work of drawing up scatter plots and frequency histograms of the measurements, on a global scale, of the length and width of the theropod footprints (these data are available on request from Farlow [farlow@pfw.edu]). We analyze the particular grouping of small footprints, providing the study of the theropod footprint measurements of 14 new sites with dinosaur footprints in Imilchil and the graphical representation (frequency histograms and scatter plots) of the global data. The work has been done by projecting and comparing the length and width measurements of the Imilchil footprints and the global ones of what we call circumscribed geographical environments (TGC or Temporal Geographical Circumscriptions [cf. Mínguez Ceniceros et al., 2022]). The ichnotaxonomic study of the footprints referred to in this work can be found in Masrour et al., (2023). Finally we interpret the position of maxima and minima in the frequency diagrams, both of Imilchil, and of the other areas in which Farlow has found records (up to the year 2022).

The importance of assessing the ghosting phenomenon in dynamic footprints when estimating stature – Forensic implications

In cases where multiple footprints are found at a crime scene, it is unusual that all are static, and some are likely dynamic. Depending on how the footprint was made, we distinguish between dynamic and static footprints. A distinguishing feature that has only recently been associated with dynamic footprints is the fact that dynamic footprints differ from static footprints by the presence of additional markings around the back of the heel and the tops of the toe prints, the so-called ghosting phenomenon. The present study aims to analyse the ghosting phenomenon on dynamic footprints – its occurrence in relation to sex, laterality, and different areas of footprints as well as length features. Additionally, it aims to investigate the assessment of the ghosting phenomenon on dynamic footprints when estimating stature for biological profiling in the forensic field. The study sample comprised of 170 young adults aged 18 – 30 years of both biological sexes. Stature was measured and dynamic footprints were obtained where the ghosting phenomenon was analysed together with length measurements of the same footprint with and without ghosting. In the first and second toes of footprints, the ghosting phenomenon occurred most frequently in both sexes and in the sex-mixed group. Sex differences were not significant in ghosting occurrence on right and left footprints (p > 0.05), except for the area of the left fifth toe (p = 0.045). All the footprints’ lengths with ghosting were significantly higher (p < 0.001) than those without ghosting. Statures calculated from footprint length measurements with ghosting predicted stature more accurately than statures calculated from the same footprint length measurements without ghosting. In the case of finding dynamic footprints at crime scenes, it is necessary to correctly identify and evaluate ghosting of the footprint. This comparison can be helpful in interpreting how ghosting should be taken into account when estimating a person's stature.

A Regional 100 m Soil Grid-Based Geographic Decision Support System to Support the Planning of New Sustainable Vineyards

A WebGis tool called GoProsit has been developed to support winegrowers in planning a new sustainable vineyard and in the identification of high-quality terroir in Tuscany, Central Italy, by providing various information on soils, climate, hydrological risks, and fertilization. GoProsit, hosted by the web platform GEAPP, is a free, user-friendly, and interactive Geographic Decision Support System (GDSS). Soil data behind the WebGis tool has a 1 ha resolution, achieved by processing the legacy vector-type soil database of the Tuscany Region with the DSMART (Disaggregation and Harmonization of Soil Map Units Through Resampled Classification Trees as supervised classification) algorithm, which disaggregated the map to 297,023 vineyard grid cells. Each grid cell holds climatic and pedologic information, along with physical and chemical features for each horizon of the most probable soil. GoProsit also provides soil maps in image format obtained by georeferencing about 50 historical soil maps (1969–2012). Finally, GoProsit runs and returns the outputs of six models: (a) carbon footprint, (b) potential erosion and maximum vine row length compatible with tolerable erosion, (c) potential water stress, (d) risk of runoff/waterlogging, (e) identification of suitable rootstocks, and (f) nutritional needs before planting. Statistics of the main model results for the investigated area are reported. This promising tool will soon be usable for the whole Italian territory; however, its potential makes it suitable for use in any wine-growing district.

Can patient anthropometry predict the anterior cruciate ligament footprint dimensions? - An MRI-based observational study on north Indian population

BackgroundAnterior Cruciate Ligament (ACL) reconstruction is one of the most common surgeries being currently done. As we usher into the era of Individualized Anatomic Reconstruction, it is very important to understand the native anatomy of ACL. We aimed to assess the ACL footprint dimensions in our patients and correlate it with anthropometric variables, which can help in preoperative decision making. MethodA total of 143 eligible patients with suspected ACL injury presented during the study period. Out of which 92 were included in the study. Data on patient's age, sex, height, weight and body mass index (BMI) was recorded. The length and area of both the tibial and femoral footprints were measured on MRI. The footprint dimensions were correlated with the recorded anthropometric data. ResultsThe ACL tibial footprint length and area, and femoral footprint length and area were found to be 13.3 ± 2.23 mm, 142.6 ± 26.16 mm2, 11.2 ± 1.97 mm, 125.8 ± 28.75 mm2 respectively. Footprint in males was significantly larger than females. A weak (ρ- 0.21 to 0.4) correlation with weight and moderate (ρ- 0.41 to 0.6) correlation with height was observed. Multivariate linear regression analysis yielded height to be the only significant predictor of footprint dimension from which predictive equations were drawn. ConclusionsHeight was found to be the most significant predictor of footprint dimensions in our patients. The predictive equations and graphs can aid in preoperative surgical decision making resulting in a more anatomical ACL reconstruction and improve the post-operative results.

Tyre–Road Heat Transfer Coefficient Equation Proposal

Tyres are one of the most important elements of a vehicle because they are the link to the road and have a huge impact on traffic-related pollution. Knowing their behaviour, thus being able to use them at their best and reducing their wear rate, is one of the means of improving their lifetime, which means decreasing traffic environmental impact. In order to understand how tyres behave and to predict the real-time tyre–road coefficient of friction, which is strongly influenced by the temperature, in the last few years several complex thermo-mechanical models of heat transfer inside the tyre have been developed. However, in the current state of the art of the literature and practice, there is still an important parameter regarding such models that is not deeply studied. This parameter is the heat transfer coefficient between the tyre and the road at the contact patch, which usually is considered as a constant. The current research paper allows understanding that such an approximation is not always valid for all of the speeds and tyre loads of city and race cars; instead, it is developed an equation that, for the first time, calculates the real-time, dynamic tyre–road heat transfer coefficient, taking into account the tyre’s travelling speed and the footprint length. The equation results are in good agreement with the empirical values coming from the literature and permit understanding how much such a parameter can vary, depending on the tyre use range. The formulation is simple enough to be easily implemented in existing thermodynamic tyre models without requiring meaningful computational time.

Pathological gait in partial foot amputation versus peripheral neuropathy

Partial foot amputation (PFA) is a common surgical loss of part of either the forefoot or mid-foot. It is usually the sequel to a cascade of physiological foot dysfunction such as peripheral neuropathy (PN). The gait compensation mechanisms associated with these foot disorders aren’t well understood yet. PurposeThe aim of the study was to evaluate pathological gait compensation mechanisms in PFA due to PN versus PN alone through a comprehensive gait analysis. MethodsPlantar pressure, GRF, load distribution, footprint length and area, foot progression angle, step length, percentage of double limb support, and stance time were measured on 53 participants assigned into two well-matched groups: (A) 25 subjects with healed unilateral PFA and (B) 28 subjects with PN without ulcer. The gait analysis was conducted at a self-preferred walking speed using the FREEMED baropodometric platform and FREESTEP software. ResultsThe PFA group showed a significant decrease in load over the remaining toes and metatarsal heads compared to the PN group (p = .001 and p = .003, respectively). Conversely, the PFA group showed a significant increase in load over the mid-foot and peak plantar pressure during mid-stance (p = .007 and p = .016, respectively). All other measured variables showed no significant difference between the two groups (p > .05). ConclusionIndividuals with PFA and PN or PN alone tend to shift their body loads posteriorly and redistribute their loads to compensate for the insufficient support from the forefoot. The PFA group was worse than the PN group. Furthermore, the PFA may not be the primary cause of the altered gait but rather the underlying systemic disease. The PFA surgery only worsens the compensatory mechanism.

Dinosaur tracksites from the Cretaceous Sagok Formation in the Uiseong Regional Geopark, South Korea: historical, palaeobiological perspectives

ABSTRACT The relatively large (1,600 m2) Jeo-ri dinosaur tracksite from the Lower Cretaceous Sagok Formation in the Uiseong County area in Gyeongsangbuk-do (North Gyeongsang Province) was the first dinosaur tracksite designated as a Korean Natural Monument (Number 373). However, it has never been described in any detail. It is shown to reveal more than 380 footprints attributed to theropods, sauropods and ornithopods. The trackways show a preferred orientation to the north and northwest with some similarly sized ornithopod trackways suggesting gregarious behaviour. A smaller tracksite from the Mancheon-ri site, representing the Sagok Formation also reveals theropod, sauropod and ornithopod trackways. These include trackways of two small ornithopods (footprint lengths ~9.9-11.5 cm) that indicate deceleration while transitioning from bipedal to quadrupedal progression. One trackway shows rare evidence of pausing to ‘stand’ and leave ‘side-by-side’ footprints. The Sagok Formation is considered correlative with the Haman Formation which is well known for its dinosaur tracksites in Gyeongsangnam-do (South Gyeongsang Province). This correlation underscores the importance of understanding the remarkable abundance and spatiotemporal distribution of dinosaur tracks in the Lower Cretaceous of Korea.

Anatomy of the biceps brachii osseous footprint: study of 100 radii and literature review

Biceps brachii (BB) tendon rupture is frequent in young males and may require surgical repair. Non-anatomic reinsertion leads to loss of strength in supination. The main aim of the present study was to describe the anatomy of the osseous footprint of the distal BB tendon. The dimensions of the footprint of the distal BB insertion were analyzed in 100 dry cadaver radii, using MicroScribe 3D software. Insertion area, assimilated to an ellipse, was calculated from 4 points (medial, lateral, cranial and caudal) determining the two axes of the ellipse. Mean footprint length, width and area were 18 mm (range, 7–24 mm), 9 mm (range, 4–15 mm), and 129 mm2 (range, 46–266 mm²), respectively. Intra- and inter-observer correlation coefficients were satisfactory: κ = 0.75 and κ = 0.7, respectively. The present study reported BB footprint dimensions in 100 radii, providing a basis to guide surgical treatment of distal BB tendon rupture. Non-anatomical restoration of the BB tendon footprint leads to poorer clinical and biomechanical results; precise knowledge of the footprint is necessary for anatomical repair.

A custom library construction method for super-resolution ribosome profiling in Arabidopsis

BackgroundRibosome profiling, also known as Ribo-seq, is a powerful technique to study genome-wide mRNA translation. It reveals the precise positions and quantification of ribosomes on mRNAs through deep sequencing of ribosome footprints. We previously optimized the resolution of this technique in plants. However, several key reagents in our original method have been discontinued, and thus, there is an urgent need to establish an alternative protocol.ResultsHere we describe a step-by-step protocol that combines our optimized ribosome footprinting in plants with available custom library construction methods established in yeast and bacteria. We tested this protocol in 7-day-old Arabidopsis seedlings and evaluated the quality of the sequencing data regarding ribosome footprint length, mapped genomic features, and the periodic properties corresponding to actively translating ribosomes through open resource bioinformatic tools. We successfully generated high-quality Ribo-seq data comparable with our original method.ConclusionsWe established a custom library construction method for super-resolution Ribo-seq in Arabidopsis. The experimental protocol and bioinformatic pipeline should be readily applicable to other plant tissues and species.

From footprint morphometrics to the stature of fossil hominins: A common but uncertain estimate

Hominin footprints are a particular remain in paleoanthropology representing brief moments of life of extinct individuals. Footprints not only provide information on the locomotor behavior of fossil taxa but also on their body characteristics such as their stature. This stature is usually estimated from the length of the footprints based on the well-known foot length to stature ratio. However, footprint length does not result only from the foot length but of a combination of factors. Therefore, it is necessary to investigate the relationships between footprint length and stature of individuals using experimental approaches. Secondly, recent discoveries of fossil footprints have led to the estimation of statures from isolated footprints. However, such estimates may be biased because of the intraindividual morphometric variation of the footprints. Moreover, footprints may also be incomplete making it impossible to measure the length and therefore the estimation of a stature. The search for relationships between stature and other morphometric variables is therefore necessary to have the most accurate picture possible of the individuals who left these tracks. In this context, this article reports the results of an experimental study that aims to determine the relationships between the stature of individuals and different morphometric variables and to quantify the intraindividual variation of each variable. Thus, 21 morphometric variables were measured on a total of 175 experimental footprints left by 20 individuals in an experimental area composed of loose sand. Statistical analyses show that footprint lengths are not only the variables most correlated with stature but also those with the least intraindividual variation. However, estimation of stature from footprints left by fossil hominins is subject to three types of uncertainties: residuals from linear regression, intraindividual variation that can be particularly large in soft substrates, and the application of relationships defined on modern populations to fossil taxa.

Qualitative and Quantitative Anatomy of the Humeral Attachment of the Pectoralis Major Muscle and Structures at Risk: A Cadaveric Study.

Background:Surgical pectoralis major (PM) repair can offer improved functional outcomes over nonoperative treatment. However, there is a lack of literature on consensus of the anatomical site of the humeral attachment.Purpose:To provide qualitative and quantitative anatomic analysis of the PM by focusing on humeral insertion and relevant structures at risk.Study Design:Descriptive laboratory study.Methods:Eight fresh-frozen male cadavers were dissected. The relevant landmarks that were collected and measured included (1) PM footprint length at the humeral insertion (total, sternal head, and clavicular head insertions); (2) PM tendon length from the humeral insertion to the musculotendinous junction; (3) distance from the PM humeral insertion to the lateral (LPN) and medial (MPN) pectoral nerves; and (4) distance from the coracoid process to the musculocutaneous nerve (MCN) in anatomical position.Results:The total PM footprint length was 81.4 mm (95% CI, 71.4-91.3). The sternal and clavicular heads that make up the PM had footprint lengths of 42.1 mm (95% CI, 32.9-51.4) and 56.6 mm (95% CI, 46.5-66.7), respectively. The PM tendon was wider at the clavicular head (74.7 mm; 95% CI, 67.5-81.7) than the sternal head insertions (43.0 mm; 95% CI, 40.1-45.9). The distances from the PM humeral insertion to LPN and MPN were 93.2 mm (95% CI, 83.1-103.3) and 103.8 mm (95% CI, 98.3-109.4), respectively. The coracoid process to MCN distance was 68.5 mm (95% CI, 60.2-76.8).Conclusion:This study successfully quantifies anatomic dimensions of the PM tendon, its sternal and clavicular head insertions, and its location relative to nearby vital structures. Such knowledge can provide surgeons with a better understanding of the PM in relation to nearby neurovascular structures during anatomic PM repair and reconstruction to avoid debilitating complications.Clinical Relevance:Knowledge of the quantitative anatomy of the PM at the humeral footprint along structures at risk may aid surgeons with identifying the injured part of the PM and improve outcomes for anatomic repair and reconstruction.

New evidence for avian and small non-avian theropod ichnotaxa from the Lower Cretaceous of Canada: Implications for theropod ichnodiversity

A diverse continental ichnofauna from the Lower Cretaceous (Aptian) Gething Formation occurs at the Ninesting Creek site in northeastern British Columbia. Vertebrate tracks including Wupus and Saurexallopus are inferred to represent medium-sized (footprint length ∼10 cm) tridactyl avian and larger (footprint length ∼15–17 cm), gracile, tetradactyl non-avian theropod trackmakers respectively. Shape, length-to-width and divarication ratios, suggest two morphotypes that are distinct from the poorly known, and infrequently-cited, Gething Formation ichnogenera Columbosauripus and Irenichnites (footprint lengths ∼12.5 and ∼15.0 cm respectively). This suggests a diverse theropod ichnofauna representing size classes which are quite distinct from the better-known large theropod ichnogenus Irenesauripus with footprint lengths in the range of ∼38.0–53.5 cm. Thus, current evidence suggests that the ichnodiversity of smaller avian and non-avian theropod tracks (footprint length ∼<15.0 cm) outnumbers large ‘megatheropod’ morphotypes by about 7:1. The implications of this distribution are consistent with recently proposed palaeoecological models. The assemblage also includes probable pterosaur tracks and distinctive arcuate compound Archaeonassa-Lockeia traces, attributed to freshwater unionid bivalves. The trace fossils comprise a composite Mermia-Scoyenia Ichnofacies assemblage. Palaeoenvironmentally the site represents the low energy margin of an open lake basin or floodplain pond, or a fluvial point bar.

The Long Head of the Biceps Myotendinous Junction Is Located 1.14 Centimeters Distal to the Proximal Border of the Pectoralis Major Tendon: An Anatomic Study

PurposeTo describe the proportional anatomic relationship of the long head of the biceps tendon (LHBT) myotendinous junction (MTJ) to pectoralis major tendon (PMT) and to provide an up-to-date review of the current literature.MethodsTen fresh frozen cadaveric specimens were used. A deltopectoral approach was used for exposure and anatomical location of the MTJ as well as the proximal and distal borders of the PMT were identified by 2 fellowship-trained shoulder and elbow surgeons. The longitudinal length of the PMT, the distance from the long head of the biceps (LHB) MTJ to the proximal border of the PMT (pMTJ), and the distance from the LHB MTJ to the distal border of the PMT (dMTJ) were recorded. The relationship between the pMTJ and the PMT length was then reported as a ratio.ResultsThe PMT was found to have a length of 5.16 ± 0.64 cm (4.1-6.1 cm). The pMTJ was 1.14 ± 0.52 cm (0.5-1.9 cm), and the dMTJ was 4.02 ± 0.91 cm (2.5-5.3 cm). The pMTJ/PMT ratio was 0.23 ± 0.11 (0.10-0.39).ConclusionsWe found the average length of the PMT footprint to be 5.16 cm with the LHB MTJ beginning 1.14 cm distal to its proximal border.Clinical RelevanceIt is important to understand the LHBT and its relationship to surgically relevant surrounding anatomy to allow for appropriate tensioning and improved patient outcomes in the treatment of LHBT shoulder pathology.

Anatomy of the distal biceps tendon: an invivo 3-T magnetic resonance imaging study.

On the basis of the current literature, the optimal surgical technique for distal biceps tendon tears remains controversial. Cadaveric studies have investigated distal biceps anatomy but are limited by cohort size and tissue factors. We sought to investigate distal biceps anatomy invivo by retrospectively reviewing magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) scans. An improved understanding of the anatomy of the distal biceps tendon will lead to better definition of the optimal anatomic surgical repair. Two independent observers retrospectively reviewed 3-T MRI scans of elbows. Basic demographic data were collected, and measurements of tendon length, footprint width, footprint length, and footprint angle were taken using simultaneous tracker lines and a standardized technique. From the biceps muscle belly distally, the presence of a single tendon or double tendons was recorded and the tendon interdigitation point was measured if relevant. A total of 106 3-T MRI scans of 106 elbows of 103 patients were included. There were 71 male and 32 female patients, and the mean age was 44.7 years. Most distal biceps tendons exited the biceps muscle belly as separate entities (91%, 96 of 106 elbows) and then coalesced prior to insertion on the radial tuberosity (91%, 87 of 96 elbows). There was a positive correlation between tendon length and footprint length (P<.05), as well as between tendon length and footprint width (P<.05). The mean tendon length was 65.2 mm (95% confidence interval [CI], 63.3-66.8 mm; range, 44.3-86.8 mm), the mean distance from the musculotendinous junction to the interdigitation point was 38.3 mm (95% CI, 35.8-40.9 mm; range, 8.9-64.8 mm), the mean footprint width was 10.3 mm (95% CI, 9.9-10.7 mm; range, 5.9-16.3 mm), the mean footprint length was 16.2 mm (95% CI, 15.6-16.9; range, 7.3-25.4 mm), and the mean footprint angle was 32.1° (95% CI, 29.5°-34.6°; range, 8.5°-84.3°). An invivo, high-resolution study of the anatomy of the distal biceps tendon improves our understanding of its complex morphology and hence our ability to perform an anatomic "footprint repair."

Progression of Symptomatic Partial-Thickness Rotator Cuff Tears: Association With Initial Tear Involvement and Work Level.

Background:Partial-thickness rotator cuff tears (PTRCTs) often progress to full-thickness rotator cuff tears (FTRCTs). Thus, it is important to analyze the risk factors for tear progression to determine the proper timing of repair.Purpose:To identify the risk factors associated with progression of PTRCT.Study Design:Case-control study; Level of evidence, 3.Methods:Included were 89 patients diagnosed with PTRCT on magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) scans who underwent nonoperative treatment at the authors’ institution between August 2012 and August 2019. Patient characteristics, shoulder stiffness (compared with the contralateral shoulder); work level (classified as high [heavy manual labor], medium [manual labor with less activity], and low [sedentary activity]); and radiological factors including initial tear size, acromion type (flat, curved, hooked, or heel-shaped), and initial tear involvement (as a percentage of the rotator cuff tendon footprint length) were analyzed to assess their association with tear progression, defined as >20% increase in tear involvement.Results:The mean MRI follow-up period was 22.3 ± 17.2 months (median, 16.1 months; range, 6.4-89.5 months), and tear progression was observed in 12 patients (13.5%). In these 12 patients, tear involvement increased by 60% of the rotator cuff footprint, while mediolateral (ML) and anteroposterior (AP) tear sizes progressed by 1.1 and 1.8 mm, respectively. Univariate regression analysis showed that shoulder stiffness (P = .031), work level (P = .001), initial tear involvement (P < .001), ML and AP tear sizes (P < .001 and P = .005, respectively), and acromion type (P = .003) were significantly associated with tear progression. Multivariate regression analysis showed that initial tear involvement (odds ratio [OR], 1.053; 95% CI, 1.006-1.102; P = .026) and high work level (OR, 15.831; 95% CI, 1.150-217.856; P = .039) were independent risk factors for tear progression. The cutoff value for initial tear involvement was 47.5% (sensitivity, 81.8%; specificity, 85.7%).Conclusion:Tear progression was observed in 14% of patients with PTRCT in this study. To predict tear progression, evaluating the tear involvement during initial MRI is essential. The risk of tear progression increased with initial tear involvement >47.5% and a heavy work level.

Design of nonvolatile and efficient Polarization-Rotating optical switch with phase change material

Chalcogenide compound Ge2Sb2Se4Te1 (GSST), an emerging phase change material, features drastic optical property contrast between the amorphous and crystalline states. In this paper, a compact and nonvolatile polarization-rotating optical switch is proposed and demonstrated numerically assisted by a L-shaped GSST waveguide, covering the telecom C- band. The switch exhibits greatly competitive performances with a good trade-off for a low insertion loss below 0.33 dB, a high switching depth (SD) above 34.2 dB, a compact device footprint (length = 4.28 μm) and an operating bandwidth over 100 nm. The device performances with the intermediate states between amorphous and crystalline of GSST are investigated as well. Furthermore, the results show that the optical switch exhibits a satisfactory robustness with SD > 33.8 dB within the ± 20-nm variations for both etching width and height. This work can provide a viable scheme to achieve the functionality of combining polarization rotation and switching, which will simplify the system architecture and improve the integration of polarization diversity circuits for optical routing on chip.

International sourcing and the productivity of SMEs in transition countries: Formal and informal ‘region effects’ and the communist footprint

We study how SMEs in transition countries can boost productivity by sourcing inputs from regions with which they share formal institutional links (the European Union) or informal links (the former communist bloc). Additionally, we discuss how the length of the communist footprint may modify these productivity gains. Using a sample of SMEs located in Eastern Europe, we find a positive relation between firm productivity and inputs from regions with formal and informal institutional links. We also find that this positive relation is weaker for firms with longer communist footprints that source inputs from EU countries.

Estimation of stature from foot print: A study on medical students of Bihar

Height and sex from different parts of the body help in solving crime mysteries related to human identity. Similarly, foot or shoe prints if present at the scene of the crime may provide a clue regarding the height and the sex of the person that helps in establishing the partial identity of the suspect. Aims & Objectives is to investigate the relationship between footprint length with sex and to derive a regression equation from footprint length. Footprints of200 subjects (100 males and 100 females), from among asymptomatic, apparently healthy, young adults studying in All India Institute of Medical Sciences (AIIMS), Patna, Bihar, India were taken as a subject for the study. Maximum footprint length and the height of each subject were measured. Predictive equations using linear regression were then derived separately for males, and females and for the combined data with the purpose of estimating the height when only the subject's footprint length is known. It was found that males were taller and have longer feet than females. A correlation coefficient (r) of0.739 in males and 0.6958 in females was obtained between the height and footprint length of the subjects. The standard error of the estimate was 4.6815 in males and 5.081 in females. The study revealed a highly significant degree of correlation between the measurements of footprint lengths and stature.

One size fits all? Stature estimation from footprints and the effect of substrate and speed on footprint creation.

Estimation of stature from footprint lengths is a common prediction in forensic cases and in paleoanthropology upon the discovery of fossil footprints. Many studies, which have estimated stature from footprints, generally use a "one-size-fits-all" approach that usually involves applying a known ratio of foot length to total stature to do so, although this method has fallen out of practice in forensic cases in recent years but is still commonly used for fossil trace evidence. Yet, we know that substrate and speed can change the dimensions of a footprint, so why are these "one-size-fits-all" approaches still used today? We tested footprint production across different substrates at a walk, a fast walk, and a jog. We calculated how accurately footprint dimensions were impressed between these different conditions and identified sources of error in footprint lengths, and the percentage changes of how significantly a footprint can change in length between different conditions. We provide a table with different ratios that we encourage practitioners/field scientists to refer to and use when estimating stature from footprints, with respect to the substrate on which the footprint was created and the speed at which it was created. We actively encourage researchers to add the ratios by testing more substrates so that in the future stature can be more accurately estimated, thus aiding the paleoanthropological community, but also forensic investigations by statistically highlighting how different conditions can affect trace dimensions.

Large, unwebbed bird and bird‐like footprints from the Mesozoic and Cenozoic: a review of ichnotaxonomy and trackmaker affinity

The Mesozoic and Cenozoic track record of large birds (avian theropods) with footprint lengths (FL) > 10.0 cm is quite limited, whereas small tracks (FL < 10.0 cm) are abundant from the Early Cretaceous onwards. This large versus small threshold value is consistent with the track record of extant birds among which only ˜10% are large, and so is scaled appropriately to Class Aves. The proportion of large pachydactylous (thick-toed) or robust non-avian theropod ichnotaxa reported from the Mesozoic considerably exceeds the few large leptodactylous (thin-toed) or gracile forms such as Archaeornithipus and Magnoavipes, named, albeit controversially, to suggest avian affinity. The Cenozoic record of large avian tracks is quite different, with large pachydactylous tracks limited to a few Eocene-Oligocene (Palaeogene) ichnogenera (Ornithoformipes and Rivavipes), and rare unnamed Neogene and Holocene dinornithiform tracks. Thus, large flightless species are less well represented by tracks than body fossils. This suggests probable preservational bias in favour of waterbird or shorebird-like tracks in shoreline facies. However, the Cenozoic record of large leptodactylous tracks attributable to cranes, herons and related trackmakers is quite extensive, mostly confined to the Neogene and formally named to suggest representatives of extant avian clades capable of flight. These distribution patterns apparently reflect the dominance of large pachydactylous non-avian and avian theropods in the Mesozoic and early Palaeogene, and contrast with the rise of large, as well ongoing diversification of smaller leptodactylous Aequornithes in the Neogene. These distribution patterns in space and time likely reflect changing selection pressures as today's modern avifauna evolved.