Foot-and-mouth Disease Infection Research Articles

Circulation of foot-and-mouth disease serotypes, risk factors, and their effect on hematological and biochemical profiles among cattle and buffalo in Quetta, Balochistan, Pakistan.

Foot-and-mouth disease (FMD) is an infectious disease of cloven-hoofed animals, including buffalo, cattle, sheep, goats, and pigs, causing major economic losses to the local farmers and, overall, to the national economy of the country. This study aimed to detect FMDV serotypes in year-round FMD outbreaks, hematological and biochemical changes, and oxidative stress in FMDV-infected cattle and buffaloes in the district of Quetta, Balochistan, Pakistan, and the socioeconomic impact of FMD outbreaks on farmers. We conducted a cross-sectional study in the district of Quetta, Balochistan, Pakistan, where FMD virus (FMDV) serotypes were detected by enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay (ELISA). Hematological, biochemical, and oxidative analyses were performed by analyzing the blood of FMDV-infected and non-infected animals. Information on the associated risk factors was obtained through a structured questionnaire by interviewing farmers in each FMD-affected farm. Thirty-four out of 38 farms (89%, 95% confidence interval [CI]: 75%-97%) were positive for FMD by ELISA. Higher FMD infection was detected in farms with a herd size of <50 animals (50%, 17/34), followed by >100 animals (32%, 11/34) and 51-100 animals (18%, 6/34). Fifty-seven percent (114/200, 95% CI: 50%-64%) of animals were positive for FMD. Of these, 61% (69/114) were cattle and 39% (45/114) were buffalo. FMD positivity was higher in females (86%, 98/114) than in males (14%, 16/114) and higher in animals older than 2 years of age (52%, 59/114). On average, farmers lose U.S. dollars 3000 annually due to FMD outbreaks. Animals infected with FMDV had significantly (p ≤ 0.05) white blood cell counts and significantly (p ≤ 0.05) lower hemoglobin and total protein concentrations in buffalo and cattle, whereas infected cattle showed significantly (p ≤ 0.05) lower albumin levels. Globulin levels were lower in buffaloes infected. Alanine aminotransferase levels were lower in infected cattle (p ≤ 0.05). Creatinine levels were higher in infected buffalo (p ≤ 0.05). Urea and phosphorus concentrations were higher in FMDV-infected cattle and buffalo (p ≤ 0.05). Calcium levels were lower in infected cattle and buffalo (p ≤ 0.05). Catalase enzyme activity in infected cattle and buffaloes was significantly lower (p < 0.05). Lipid peroxidation was significantly higher in FMDV-infected cattle and buffalo (p ≤ 0.05). This study confirmed serotype O circulation among cattle and buffalo in year-long FMD outbreaks in the Quetta District of Balochistan. Blood analysis identified a parameter deviated from the normal level due to FMDV infection. In addition, the outbreak of FMD has a significant negative economic impact on livestock farmers.

Hematological Profile in Dairy Cattle with Foot and Mouth Diseases in Lembang, West Bandung

Foot and mouth disease (FMD) is a widespread infectious disease that significantly affects the dairy farming sector in Indonesia. In reducing the impact caused by FMD, proper treatment performed by veterinarians is necessary. Hematological profile can be used as a data reference to prioritize dairy cattle infected with FMD. This study aimed to describe the hematological profile in dairy cattle with FMD infection. This study was collected data from 15 dairy cattle with FMD infection at Koperasi Peternak Sapi Bandung Utara (KPSBU), Lembang, West Bandung, West Java, Indonesia. Parameters observed in the hematology analyzer were the numbers of erythrocytes, leukocytes, lymphocytes, neutrophils, platelets, hemoglobin, hematocrit, MCV, MCH, MCHC, RDW, and MPV. The results of the examination of hematological profile showed various numbers. It found lymphopenia, neutrophilia, and high MPV values. It was suggested for veterinarians to refer to this study's results to determine an effective and efficient treatment.

The milk production of recovered dairy cows from foot-and-mouth disease in the Medowo Village, Kandangan Subdistrict, Kediri

The outbreak of Foot-and-Mouth Disease (FMD) has caused a crisis for Indonesian farmers, particularly dairy cattle in Medowo village. The FMD outbreak affected the whole dairy cow population in Medowo, resulting in major losses defined by high mortality rates and a halt in milk production during the cows' FMD infection. Dairy cows, which are essential for maintaining milk production and providing an economic foundation for Medowo's farmers, led our team to execute community service from January to August 2023. Socialization and data collection on farmers and their cows were followed by laboratory testing for mastitis identification and treatment. The outreach events focused on mastitis care for cows, promoting talks to solve farmers' issues, particularly in livestock health. Farmers were instructed on how to report subclinical mastitis instances to appropriate authorities, were trained on how to prepare fermented feed/silage with probiotics to improve feed quality, and were monitored for overall evaluation. The milk production data collected showed that morning yield produce higher quantity than afternoon yield. The lowest milk production occurs in September, while the highest is observed in November. Overall, data from dairy cow milk production in Medowo Village after FMD outbreak show a satisfactory result, illustrating the success of community service programs. Future initiatives should include collecting data on a regular basis to allow for ongoing evaluation and continued improvement in milk production.

Expression of VP1 protein of foot-and-mouth disease virus serotype O originated from Indonesia in mammalian cells as potential immunogen

In 2022, Indonesia experienced foot-and-mouth disease (FMD) outbreak resulting in the death of hundreds of cattle; after more than 30 years, the country maintained FMD-free status. The FMD viral polypeptides-1 (VP1) protein contains major antigenic sites, making the protein have an important role in diagnostic applications or vaccine development. In this study, a synthetic codon-optimized vp1 gene from FMD virus serotype O was integrated into pcDNA3.1 vector and transformed to Escherichia coli TOP10F’ for plasmid propagation. The pcDNA3.1-1D-VP1 FMDV plasmid was then verified using agarose gel, showing in 659 bp size of the DNA fragment. The VP1 recombinant plasmid was transfected into HEK293T cells in DMEM medium supplemented with 10% FBS. Protein profiles were determined with SDS-PAGE showing target protein at 33KDa. Protein expression was confirmed by in-cell western assay using anti-VP1 type O polyclonal antibody and IRDye® 800CW goat anti-rabbit IgG as the secondary antibody. The result revealed a high-intensity fluorescence signal, indicating a strong interaction between expressed protein and anti-VP1 antibody. Thus, the results of this study demonstrate the potential for VP1 protein to be used as an immunogen in vaccine or diagnostic development against FMD infection. Nonetheless, some additional studies should be conducted.

Spatiotemporal distribution of foot-and-mouth disease in Nepal between 2019 and 2021

Foot-and-mouth disease (FMD) is a highly contagious viral disease affecting cloven-hoofed livestock. It is caused by the FMD virus (FMDV), which has seven distinct serotypes (O, A, C, SAT I, SAT II, SAT III, and Asia 1). In Nepal, FMD is a prevalent and economically important livestock disease, with hundreds of outbreaks yearly across different regions. However, there is limited understanding of the recent epidemiological trends of FMD in the past few years in Nepal. This study aims to analyze the spatial and temporal distribution of FMD in Nepal from 2019 to 2021. The FMD and TADs Investigation Laboratory, under the Government of Nepal, conducts annual risk-based surveillance of FMD in the country. The nonstructural protein (NSP) serosurveillance and serotyping (for outbreak confirmation) data from this laboratory were used for the study. The samples were collected either by the laboratory staff or were sent to the laboratory. Data analysis and mapping were performed using Epi info version 7.2.5.0 and QGIS version 3.22.5, respectively. Our findings revealed that 37.65% of samples (n = 417) tested positive for serotyping. The highest number of positive cases occurred in March–April, followed by December. Geographically, the Terai region had the most positive cases, followed by hills and mountains. The positivity rate for serotyping did not significantly vary by animal species (p > 0.05). Serotype O was the dominant serotype in all years, accounting for 98% of cases, while serotype A was found in only 2% of serotype-positive samples. In NSP serosurveillance, out of 3216 samples tested, 15.07% (474/3146; 95% CI, 13.86–16.36) tested positive. NSP seropositivity varied significantly by year (p < 0.001) but not by eco-zone (p > 0.05). In conclusion, FMD remains endemic in Nepal, with a consistent epidemiological pattern except that the Asia 1 serotype was not detected in the past years. We recommend expanding FMD surveillance activities to high-risk areas and collecting data on potential risk factors driving FMD infection in the country. This will enable the implementation of suitable control measures.

The prevalence of foot-and-mouth disease in Asia.

Foot-and-mouth disease (FMD) is listed among the highly contagious diseases in animals and is endemic throughout the Asian continent. The disease is caused by the Foot-and-mouth disease virus (FMDV) and affects a wide variety of domesticated animals as well as wild ungulates. Clinically, the disease is described as a vesicular lesion on the tongue, muzzle, lips, gum, dental pad, interdigital cleft, coronary band, and heel of the foot. Sometimes these lesions give rise to lameness. Mastitis is also caused due to teat lesions. A biochemical test reveals that during FMD infection, there are elevated levels of interleukin-1 (IL-1), tumor necrosis factor-alpha, interferon-gamma (IFN-γ), interleukin-6, serum amyloid A protein, lactoferrin, mannose-binding lectin, and monocytes chemo-attractant protein-1 in the serum of infected animals. There is no specific treatment for FMD although some antivirals are given as prophylaxis and antibiotics are given to prevent secondary bacterial infection. This review presents comprehensive data on the prevalence of FMD and serotypes of FMDV that are attributable to the cause of FMD from a regional point of view. It also explains the worldwide dynamics of the seven serotypes of FMD and tries to identify epidemiological clusters of FMD in various geographical areas. Furthermore, the pathology associated with the foot and mouth disease virus along with the pathophysiology is discussed. The continent-wide prevalence and diversity patterns of FMD suggest that there is a need for stringent policies and legislation implementation regarding research and development aimed at manufacturing strain-specific vaccination, infection prevention, and control of the disease.

Detection of clinical and subclinical Foot and Mouth Disease Virus in Cattle in Al-Najaf Province.

Foot-and-mouth disease (FMD) is a highly transmissible disease caused by Aphthovirus of the family Picornaviridae. This study aimed to investigate the serological approach (non-structural protein [NSP] analysis) of 3ABC enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay (ELISA) to diagnose FMD cattle in vaccinated and unvaccinated animals. A total of 84 serum specimens, including non-vaccinated, single-vaccinated, and multi-vaccinated samples, were collected from four districts in Baghdad Province, Iraq, to evaluate the antibodies to NSP of the FMD virus. The ELISA was used to detect antibodies (NSP) of FMDV in the serum of cattle. The result showed that the seroprevalence was estimated at 34% (29/84) in farm animals. The seroprevalence rates of FMD in relation to the age of infected animals were obtained at 21%, 7%, and 6% in 9-23-, 24-36-, and ≥ 36-month-old groups, respectively. The consequences of the examination of the sera from naive, immunized, and non-immunized infected farm animals applying 3ABC-ELISA were presented; accordingly, the incidence rates of FMD infection in non-vaccinated and vaccinated animals were 18 (75%) and 11 (18%) respectively. Negative results were recorded in the immunized group 49 (82%) higher than in the non-immunized group 6 (25%). Evaluation of NSP antibodies to isolate vaccinated animals from infected ones showed that the application of these assays was significantly useful for FMD prevention and control management programs in infected areas.

Component Identification and Analysis of Vesicular Fluid From Swine Infected by Foot-and-Mouth Disease Virus

Foot-and-mouth disease (FMD) is induced by FMD virus (FMDV) and characterized by fever and vesicular (blister-like) lesions. However, the exact composition of the vesicular fluid in pigs infected with FMDV remains unclear. To identify and analyze the components of the vesicular fluid in FMDV-infected domestic pigs, the fluid was collected and subjected to mass spectrometry. Further analyses were conducted using Gene Ontology (GO), Kyoto Encyclopedia of Genes and Genome (KEGG), and protein–protein interaction (PPI). Quantitative ELISA kit for TNF-α, and IFN-α, IFN-β, IL-6, IL-10, IL-1β, and IFN-γ were used to verify the mass spectrometry results. Results showed that 937 proteins were identified in the vesicular fluid from swine after FMDV infection, and bioinformatics analysis indicated that these proteins are related to the innate immune and inflammation pathways. The levels of cytokines involved in the disease-related pathways, tumor necrosis factors, and IL-6 in the fluid samples were significantly increased. This study identified and analyzed the composition of vesicular fluid in pigs after FMD infection for the first time and provided interesting information that help understand the infection and pathogenesis mechanism of FMD. These information will eventually contribute to the prevention and control of FMD.

Short communication: preliminary observations on the serum levels of HSP70 and its correlation with serum cortisol, thyroid hormones, and acute-phase protein concentration in cattle naturally infected with foot-and-mouth disease virus

The study aimed to explore the serum levels of HSP70 and identify its possible association with serum cortisol, thyroid hormones, and acute-phase protein concentrations in cattle naturally infected with foot-and-mouth disease (FMD) virus. After the FMD outbreak in an organized dairy cattle farm in India, blood samples were obtained from clinically infected (n = 40) and apparently healthy (n = 30) animals. Samples were processed and tested by an in-house DIVA assay for confirmation of FMD infection. Serum was analyzed forHSP70, cortisol, T4, T3, haptoglobin, and serum amyloid A by enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay (ELISA). HSP70 concentrations were significantly higher in the serum of clinically infected cattle (p < 0.01) than the healthy group. To the best of our knowledge, this is the first report describing the elevated serum levels of HSP70 under infectious diseases of bovines. Cortisol (p < 0.05), haptoglobin (p < 0.001), and serum amyloid A (p < 0.05) concentrations also markedly increased in the diseased animals; however, no differences (p > 0.05) were found in T4 and T3 levels between healthy and infected cattle. Elevated HSP70 concentration correlated positively with high cortisol (p < 0.05) and haptoglobin (p < 0.001) levels suggesting an essential link between these acute events during clinical infectious phase of FMD.

Development and Validation of Confirmatory Foot-and-Mouth Disease Virus Antibody ELISAs to Identify Infected Animals in Vaccinated Populations.

In foot-and-mouth disease (FMD)-endemic countries, vaccination is commonly used to control the disease, whilst in FMD-free countries, vaccination is considered as an option, in addition to culling the infected and in contact animals. FMD vaccines are mainly comprised of inactivated virions and stimulate protective antibodies to virus structural proteins. In contrast, infection with FMD virus leads to virus replication and additional antibody responses to viral nonstructural proteins (NSP). Therefore, antibodies against NSPs are used to differentiate infection in vaccinated animals (DIVA), in order to estimate the prevalence of infection or its absence. Another advantage of NSP antibody tests is that they detect FMD infection in the field, irrespective of the serotypes of virus in circulation. In cattle, the NSP tests that target the 3ABC polyprotein provides the highest sensitivity, detecting up to 90% of vaccinated animals that become carriers after exposure to infection, with a specificity of around 99%. Due to insufficient diagnostic sensitivity and specificity, detection of a low level of infection is difficult at the population level with a high degree of confidence. The low level of non-specific responses can be overcome by retesting samples scored positive using a second confirmatory test, which should have at least comparable sensitivity to the first test. In this study, six in-house tests were developed incorporating different NSP antigens, and validated using bovine sera from naïve animals, field cases and experimentally vaccinated and/or infected animals. In addition, two (short and long incubation) new commercial NSP tests based on 3ABC competitive blocking ELISAs (ID Screen® FMD NSP Competition, IDvet, France) were validated in this study. The two commercial ELISAs had very similar sensitivities and specificities that were not improved by lengthening the incubation period. Several of the new in-house tests had performance characteristics that were nearly as good as the commercial ELISAs. Finally, the in-house tests were evaluated for use as confirmatory tests following screening with the PrioCHECK® and ID Screen® FMDV NS commercial kits, to assess the diagnostic performance produced by a multiple testing strategy. The in-house tests could be used in series (to confirm) or in parallel (to augment) with the PrioCHECK® and IDvet® FMDV NS commercial kits, in order to improve either the specificity or sensitivity of the overall test system, although this comes at the cost of a reduction in the counterpart (sensitivity/specificity) parameter.

A Proposed Information System for Communicating Foot-and-Mouth Disease Events among Livestock Stakeholders in Gairo District, Morogoro Region, Tanzania

Foot-and-Mouth Disease (FMD) is present in many countries globally, including Tanzania, especially Gairo district. The data shows that 78% of livestock keepers in Gairo district had already observed FMD infection in their cattle, and the pastoral communities were mostly affected. Currently, vaccination is the main tool for controlling FMD because there are no therapeutic intervention tools. Therefore, effective communication among livestock stakeholders can be used as an essential tool of preparedness for the disease’s impact. This study had two specific objectives: (i) to explore the challenges of communicating FMD events among livestock keepers and other livestock stakeholders in Gairo district and (ii) to propose an information system for sharing FMD events among the livestock stakeholders in Gairo district. The study found that there was a delay when communicating FMD events in Gairo district due to the long chain of information flow. Therefore, the system aims to reduce the communication chain by allowing livestock keepers to report disease outbreaks directly to the system. Livestock keepers may also access FMD precaution measures, negative impacts, clinical signs transmission ways, and current outbreaks directly from the system using Unstructured Supplementary Service Data (USSD), Short Message Services (SMS), robocalls, and feature phones. The system also provides a common platform for sharing FMD outbreaks data and events to other stakeholders based on the system’s privileges. In this study, a closed-ended interview using a questionnaire was used for data collection. The PHP hypertext processor, jQuery, HTML, JSON, JavaScript, Apache web server, and MySQL database were used for developing the system.

Economic Analysis of Increasing Foot-and-Mouth Disease Vaccination Frequency: The Case of the Biannual Mass Vaccination Strategy.

Biannual mass vaccination is a routinely applied foot-and-mouth disease (FMD) control strategy in Turkey. However, because biannual mass vaccination may leave significant immunity gaps, this strategy may cause economic losses because of possible FMD infections. In high-risk areas—such as border cities, it was suggested by the government to increase the vaccination intervals in order to decrease the FMD infection risk. This study analyses and compares the economic effects of a biannual mass vaccination regime and vaccination every 4 months as an alternative strategy in border cities by using partial budgeting approach. Biannual mass vaccination was used as a baseline scenario. Data on the impact of FMD on animal health and production parameters for 2018 were obtained from the OIE-WAHIS system and complemented by literature data and expert opinion. In the partial budgeting model, weight loss was considered as a major loss of income because majority of the farming systems are based on cattle fattening in the border cities of Turkey. Results revealed that the net economic impact, which is the benefit that exceeds the losses and costs of increasing the frequency of vaccination, is 76.4 TL ($15.9) per cattle. The sensitivity analysis showed that average body weight and weight losses when infected had more effect on net impact changes than market prices. The lower and upper FMD incidence variability resulted in 19.2 TL ($4) and 190.8 TL ($39.6) of net impact per cattle, respectively. The new FMD control strategy would make a total net economic impact of 5,274,836 TL ($1,094,250) for a population of 800,970 fattening cattle in border cities. The results of this study indicated that intense FMD control strategies may be more cost effective than the current control strategies, especially in high-risk areas. Future studies with more comprehensive epidemiological and economic data must be conducted to analyze and compare alternative FMD control strategies in Turkey.

A randomized controlled field trial assessing foot and mouth disease vaccine effectiveness in Gondar Zuria district, Northwest Ethiopia

Foot and mouth disease (FMD) is a highly transmissible viral disease of cloven-hoofed animals, which is endemic in many developing countries. Vaccination is the main tool for FMD control in resource limited endemic countries like Ethiopia. Vaccine quality, which is often questionable in developing countries, is a critical element for effective disease control. The present study was aimed at evaluating the field effectiveness of a trivalent FMD vaccine (containing serotypes O, A and SAT 2), produced and widely used in Ethiopia, in terms of preventing clinical infection and severe disease. A randomized controlled field trial design was employed in the study in which the attack rate of clinical FMD infection in vaccinated cattle was compared with the attack rate in unvaccinated controls in cattle population of 16 villages in Gondar Zuria district, Northwest Ethiopia. The vaccine was administered as a single dose course in the face of an impending FMD outbreak and the trial groups were monitored for clinical infection until the end of the outbreak. The attack rate of clinical FMD 20 days post vaccination in the vaccinated cattle (34 %) was significantly lower than the attack rate in the unvaccinated controls (49 %) (p < 0.001). However, the effectiveness of the vaccine was only 31 % (95 %CI: 20–40 %). This vaccine effectiveness increased to 52 % ((95 %CI: 33–66 %) 42 days post vaccination. The proportion of severely affected cattle in the vaccinated group (5.7 %) was significantly lower than in the unvaccinated group (9.4 %) (p < 0.001), resulting in 39 % (95 %CI: 18–55 %) vaccine effectiveness against severe disease. Generally, the observed level of vaccine effectiveness was lower than the internationally recommended 75 % plus expected percentage of protection for a standard potency 3PD50/dose FMD vaccine. Moreover, the level of effectiveness was insufficient to provide herd immunity to control the disease at the population level. Nevertheless, given the significant difference in the incidence of clinical disease and severity between vaccinated and unvaccinated cattle, it might still be worth using the current vaccine to reduce production losses associated with the disease provided it is cost effective and affordable for the farmers. Factors that cause low effectiveness of the vaccine need to be identified and addressed for effective control of the disease at population level.

Foot and Mouth Disease Virus Infection Seroprevalence Study in Dairy Cattle Reared by Smallholder Farmers in Welmera District, Central, Oromiya Ethiopia

Foot and mouth disease (FMD) is a highly contagious viral disease of cloven-hoofed animals and one of the endemic diseases in Ethiopia. A study was conducted to determine foot and mouth disease virus seroprevalence and potential risk factors in welmera district, central Oromiya, Ethiopia. Purposive sampling was performed in the respective district and kebeles where there was recent history of outbreaks. A total of 126 sera samples were collected from randomly selected cattle and tested using ELISA for antibodies against nonstructural proteins of foot and mouth disease virus. The seroprevalence of foot and mouth disease virus infection in Welmera district was 49.2%. The result indicated that seropositivity of FMD infection FMD was higher in females (54%) than in males (46.1%) and this variation was statistically significant (χ2= 12.93, p = 0.001). The associations of seropositivity of FMD in relation to body condition score and management system were statistically significant (χ2= 5.34, p = 0.023, χ2= 6.7, p = 0.003) respectively. Age related seropositivity was not statistically significant (P&gt;5%). Cross bred cattle were 2.17 (OR = 2.17, 95% CI: 2.10 – 5.74) times more likely to be infected by FMD than local breeds. This showed that FMD infection is widely prevalent in the district. Therefore, foot and mouth disease control will depend on identifying virus serotypes circulating in the area and regular vaccination program.

Sero-Epidemiology of Foot and Mouth Disease in Domestic Ruminants in Amhara Region, Ethiopia.

This study involved cross-sectional serological and questionnaire-based surveys to investigate the sero-epidemiology of foot and mouth disease (FMD) in domestic ruminants, and farmers' knowledge and practices about the disease in the Amhara region of Ethiopia. A multistage cluster sampling was carried out to select domestic ruminants for serological sampling and for the interview with farmers. A total of 1,672 sera samples were collected and tested using a 3ABC-Enzyme Linked Immunosorbent Assay, and 170 farmers were interviewed. An overall FMD apparent seroprevalence of 11.48% (95% CI: 7.52–17.14%) was recorded in the domestic ruminants. The overall true prevalence was 12.04%. The seroprevalence of FMD was higher in cattle (14.37%) than in goats (7.10%) and sheep (7.07%). The age stratified seroprevalence in the districts showed that 66.67% of the districts studied experienced a FMD outbreak within the preceding year of the study time. A mixed effect logistic regression analysis revealed that agroecology, the production system and the age of the animal was significantly associated with FMD seropositivity in cattle (P < 0.05). A statistically significant (P < 0.05) positive correlation (r = 0.93) was observed between cattle and small ruminant FMD seroprevalences. About 82% of the farmers interviewed knew of FMD and 85% of them had experienced the disease in their own herds before. The farmers mostly employ traditional means to control FMD. In conclusion, the findings of the study indicated that FMD is a prevalent disease in the Amhara region with more importance in the intensive production systems and the lowlands of the region. High correlation in seroprevalence between small and large ruminants indicated a possible cross transmission between these species. Therefore, small ruminants should not be overlooked in FMD control. Farmers in the region have a good level of knowledge about the disease; however, currently they heavily rely on traditional practices primarily focused on treating wounds of infected animals. This calls for extension work on available effective preventive measures of the disease, such as vaccination and movement restriction.

Serological Detection of Foot and Mouth Disease Virus Non-Structural Protein Antibodies in Sheep Slaughtered at Gwagwalada Abattoir, Abuja-Nigeria

Small ruminants (Ovine and Caprine) constitutes a significant revenue generation component for small-scale livestock farmers across the globe especially in most developing nations including Nigeria. Viral diseases like Foot-and-mouth disease (FMD) is a major contagious disease of domestic ruminants that hampers livestock productivity in countries where the disease is still endemic. However, the role of Sheep in FMD epidemiology in Nigeria is still underestimated and poorly understood. This study was aimed at establishing the occurrence of FMD in slaughtered Sheep at Gwagwalada abattoir. One hundred and eighty (180) sera were randomly collected from slaughtered sheep and subjected to NS-Blocking ELISA test using PrioCHECK® ELISA kit at the Foot and Mouth Disease Laboratory, National Veterinary Research Institute (NVRI), Vom. The result showed that out of 180 test sera, 29 (16.0%) were evident of NSP-FMD antibodies and 151 (84.0%) were negative. This findings indicates FMD infections were within and absence of vaccination against FMD in sheep. The consequence of co-herding of sheep as a risk factor in FMD spread and transmission within this study area could be far overwhelming. In conclusion, this preliminary finding provides information on the occurrence of FMD in all breeds of apparently healthy, non-vaccinated Rams and Ewes slaughtered in Gwagwalada abattoir. Control efforts should be put in place to prevent potential vicious circle of outbreaks that may arise from transmission of Foot and Mouth Disease Virus from slaughtered sheep in the abattoir to livestock markets and possibly herds within and around Gwagwalada Area Council.

The Effectiveness of a Foot and Mouth Disease Outbreak Control Programme in Thailand 2008–2015: Case Studies and Lessons Learned

Three Foot and Mouth Disease (FMD) outbreaks in northern Thailand that occurred during the implementation of the national FMD strategic plan in 2008–2015 are described to illustrate the lessons learned and to improve the prevention and control of future outbreaks. In 2008, during a FMD outbreak on a dairy farm, milk delivery was banned for 30 days. This was a part of movement management, a key strategy for FMD control in dairy farms in the area. In 2009, more than half the animals on a pig farm were affected by FMD. Animal quarantine and restricted animal movement played a key role in preventing the spread of FMD. In 2010, FMD infection was reported in a captive elephant. The suspected source of virus was a FMD-infected cow on the same premises. The infected elephant was moved to an elephant hospital that was located in a different province before the diagnosis was confirmed. FMD education was given to elephant veterinarians to promote FMD prevention and control strategies in this unique species. These three cases illustrate how differences in outbreak circumstances and species require the implementation of a variety of different FMD control and prevention measures. Control measures and responses should be customized in different outbreak situations.

The first molecular detection of Clostridium perfringens from pneumonic cases associated with foot and mouth disease in cattle and buffalo in Egypt.

Panting syndrome and respiratory infection have been recorded in complicated cases of foot and mouth disease (FMD) in cattle. However, investigations on the causative agents of respiratory disease in such cases are scarce. In this study, 30 animals (13 buffalo and 17 cattle) suffering from respiratory distress associated with signs of FMD were examined. Serum samples were collected and FMD infection was confirmed. Bacteriological examination of lungs from eight necropitized cases revealed the presence of C. perfringens. Multiplex polymerase chain reaction (mPCR) was performed on the positive samples followed by sequencing analysis. The alpha toxin gene (plc) of C. perfringens was identified in six cases. The present investigation highlights the role of clostridial infection as a complication of FMD in cattle and buffalo. This is the first report identifying the C. perfringens toxins from lung of animals with respiratory distress associated with FMD infection.

Animal-level risk factors associated with foot-and-mouth disease in cattle and buffalo in Egypt

There is a paucity of the investigation of risk factors associated with foot-and-mouth disease (FMD) in Egypt. Subsequently, in the present study the impact of risk factors associated with FMD infection was analyzed in cattle and buffalo reared in Qalyubia governorate, Egypt. Serum samples were collected from 288 animals (n = 90 water buffalo (Bubalus bubalis) and n = 198 cattle) and adapted for detection of FMD virus infection by ELISA assay with monoclonal antibody (MELISA) to type serotype O. Direct FMD virus serotype was detected in 115 animals (n = 82 cattle and n = 33 buffalo). Univariate analysis revealed a significant association between FMD infection and the fattening animals (P = 0.024; odds ratio (OR) 2.118; confidence interval (CI) 1.105–4.058). Multivariate statistics demonstrated that locality was the potential risk factors for infection by FMD virus (P = 0.001; OR 31.613; CI 13.791–72.466). The present investigation draws attention and gives the impression to the potential risk factors associated with FMD-infected cases in cattle and buffalo in Qalyubia governorate in Egypt. Recognition of the potential risk factors associated with FMD-infected cases offer a novel approach to construct the best preventive measures.

ALTERATIONS IN SOME BIOCHEMICAL PARAMETERS IN CATTLE AFFECTED WITH FOOT AND MOUTH DISEASE IN DAKAHLIA GOVERNORATE, EGYPT

This study was carried out to evaluate the changes in serum biochemical parameters during foot and mouth disease (FMD) viral infection, so blood samples were collected from different farms in Dakahlia Governorate during the outbreak of the disease in 2016. Blood samples were collected after complete clinical and physical examination of twenty five cattle; their ages were ranging from 1-2 years and divided into two groups as follows: 15 cattle were showing the clinical signs of the disease and 10 cattle were clinically healthy (control group). The obtained results showed a significant increase in glucose level (P<0.01), non-esterified fatty acids (NEFA) (P<0.001), beta hydroxyl butyric acid (BHBA) (P<0.001) and lipase enzyme (P<0.01) in infected cattle compared to control group. On the other hand, serum insulin concentration and amylase were significantly lower in blood of infected cattle than control group (P<0.001) and (p < 0.01) respectively. from the obtained results it could be concluded that FMD infection in cattle is associated with hyperglycemia, hypoinsulinemia and ketosis.