Impact Of Foot And Mouth Disease Research Articles

The Socio-Economic Impact of Foot and Mouth Disease (FMD) on Livestock Farming in Sierra Leone, an Empirical Evidence from Six (6) Districts

As a highly infectious disease, Foot and Mouth disease (FMD) has been eradicated by many wealthy nations but remains endemic in most of the world especially countries in Sub-Saharan Africa1. When FMD outbreaks occur in disease free countries and zones that produce livestock for export, the economic impact is clear to see; however, the impact of the disease in endemic countries is more controversial, particularly when compared to diseases that cause greater mortality. Taking into account the limited resources of veterinary services for the implementation of animal disease surveillance anywhere and anytime in Sierra Leone, a socio-economic impact assessment study was conducted to quantify the impacts, spread and occurrence of the disease, in order to target and put in place precautionary control measures including targeted surveillance. The main socio-economic impact question of the study was “What is the social and economic impact of FMD in the districts under review. The study was conducted in 6 districts in the North and East of Sierra Leone. A total of 240 respondents using purposive sampling were interviewed to elicit information on the main socio-economic variables that informed the study. The study established (80%) of the sampled farmers are livestock farmers, while 32 people (13.3%) are crop farmers who mainly practice subsistence farming. The study proved that the yearly income from the sales of livestock both especially large ruminants increase to 154 (64.2%). This percentage plummeted when FMD struck in 2018-2019. The study showed that (55.8% of the household indicated that their cattle suffered from Foot and Mouth Disease (FMD) during the outbreak of July-August 2018-2019, while goats and sheep suffered Peste des Petits Ruminants (PPR) with households reporting (70.8%) and 162 (68%) of Infection rates before the commencement of this study. The study recommended that the veterinary division of maintain and improve on active surveillance of FMD, update surveillance plan targeting priority districts and hotspots of FMD outbreak such as livestock markets to maintain the current status of Low risk to prevent social and economic impacts’

Bovine Sero- surveillance of Foot- and – Mouth Disease in Four States in Nigeria

Animals with cloven hooves are susceptible to highly contagious foot and mouth disease (FMD). FMD epidemics have affected several underdeveloped countries, including Nigeria. The migration of pastoralist animals has been linked to FMD transmission in Nigeria, and surveillance is essential for assessing the threat and impact of FMD, as well as the emergence of PCP-FMD. Here, we report the sero-surveillance of FMD in cattle in four states in Nigeria in 2019. Sera collected from four states (Anambra, Enugu, Imo, and Katsina) were tested for antibodies against FMD non-structural protein (NSP), with an overall prevalence of 45%. Significantly higher seroprevalence was recorded in Imo (63%), followed by Kastina (56%), Anambra (29%), and Enugu (6%). An overall serotype-specific prevalence of 81%, 35 %, 50 %, and 35% was recorded for serotypes O, A, 50% for SAT 2, and SAT 1, respectively. Furthermore, circulating antibodies against four serotypes of FMDV were found in 16% of sera samples, 20% had antibodies against three circulating serotypes, 33% had antibodies against two serotypes, and 25% showed exposure to only one serotype, indicating exposure to multiple FMD serotypes. These findings demonstrate the presence of FMDV antibodies in cattle across all surveyed states, which may be related to the presence of multiple FMDV serotypes (O, A, SAT1and SAT2) and concurrent co-infection in these states. Therefore, there is a need for the continuous surveillance of FMD in Nigeria. This will help ascertain the burden of the disease and enable the implementation of necessary control measures to stop its potential transmission and further spread. This sero-surveillance data expands our understanding of the FMD situation in Nigeria and is crucial for determining the country’s FMD risk in order to advance the PCP-FMD.

Household production and consumption impacts of foot and mouth disease at the Uganda-Tanzania border.

Foot-and-mouth disease (FMD) is a highly contagious viral disease that is endemic in East Africa. FMD virus infection incurs significant control costs and reduces animal productivity through weight loss, lowered milk yield, and potentially death but how household's respond to these losses may differentially affect household income and food consumption. To address this, we use unique data from a FMD outbreak to assess how household production and consumption activities change from before to during the outbreak. Data came from a 2018 survey of 254 households in selected Tanzanian wards and sub-counties in Uganda. The data includes household recall of before and during an outbreak in the past year on livestock and livestock product sales, milk and beef consumption, as well as related changes in market prices. We apply both difference-in-difference and change in difference ordinary least squares regressions with fixed effects to evaluate the impact of FMD on household production and consumption. We find that households reported the largest reductions in livestock and livestock product sales, followed by reduced milk consumption and animal market prices. The changes in household income from livestock sales appears to be driven by FMD virus infection within the household herd while changes in market prices of substitute protein sources are primary associated with changes in milk and beef consumption. The role of widespread market price effects across both infected and uninfected herds and countries, tends to suggest that stabilizing prices will likely have a large impact on household nutritional security and income generation. We also propose that promoting diversity in market activity may mitigate differing impacts on households in FMD endemic regions.

DAMPAK EKONOMI AKIBAT OUTBREAK PENYAKIT MULUT DAN KUKU PADA TERNAK SAPI DAN KERBAU DI INDONESIA

Indonesia has been hit by outbreak of foot and mouth disease (FMD) after more than 30 years of being free of FMD. This study aimed to determine the level of transmission of the FMD virus and the potential economic losses due to the FMD outbreak. The method used in this research was a case study in which the data used for analysis was secondary data. The analytical method was used the reproduction number (R0) and the economic impact of FMD by using the Rushton and Knight formula. The results showed that the rate of transmission of the FMD virus was R0 = 2.85, i.e. one animal exposed to the FMD virus could infect three cattle for two weeks. The economic impact of the PMK outbreak is estimated at Rp 38.67 trillion. Therefore, the government must immediately vaccinate the affected cattle and buffalo to reduce the transmission rate.

Analysis of Epidemiological and Economic Impact of Foot-and-Mouth Disease Outbreaks in Four District Areas in Thailand.

Foot and mouth disease (FMD) is one of the most important infectious animal diseases impacting livestock production in Thailand. Despite a national vaccination program, FMD outbreaks are reported every year. We studied the epidemiological impacts of FMD outbreaks in four districts of Thailand between 2015 and 2016. Epidemiological data were collected from 193 FMD-affected dairy farms, 55 FMD-affected beef farms, and 25 FMD-affected pig farms. A significant difference in morbidity rates were observed between the dairy farms in the different areas, which could be explained by the differences in FMD outbreak management in each area. The morbidity rates in dairy and beef cattle also significantly differed between each animal age category, with the lowest morbidity rate observed in calves. Remarkably, vaccination was not significantly associated with the morbidity rate. In addition, the economic impact of FMD was calculated for 60 dairy farms in Muak Lek district. The economic losses were determined as the sum of milk production loss, mortality loss, additional labor costs, and veterinary service and medical costs, which averaged 56 USD per animal on the farm (ranging from 2 to 377 USD). Milk loss had the largest economic impact, although it varied substantially between farms. The farm size and outbreak duration were significantly associated with the total economic losses per farm. These results affirm the substantial epidemiological and economic impact of FMD on farms in Thailand, emphasizing the importance of FMD control.

A systematic review of the methods used to analyze the economic impact of endemic foot-and-mouth disease.

Foot-and-mouth disease (FMD) has large economic consequences in livestock systems, which must be robustly assessed to support disease control policy. This study described and assessed methods used within economic analyses of FMD and its control in endemic contexts. A systematic literature search was conducted in six academic search engines. Studies were included if they applied an economic analysis to a context with endemic FMD, producing a result articulated as a monetary figure. Data collected from each article included country of study, animal population, geographical level of analysis, time horizon and type of economic analysis. Each study was scored using a quality assessment tool containing a checklist of 42 reporting criteria. Sixty-four articles were included, from 12,087 identified in the searches, describing results for 26 countries. Over half of the articles (56%) described economic impact of FMD retrospectively, often only accounting for a selection of direct costs at farm or household level. Median quality score calculated was 41% (range 8%-86%). Methods were generally poorly reported, confirming previously described difficulties in using published data to evaluate economic impact of endemic FMD. Few studies included disaggregation of public and private costs, or benefits, of FMD control, or accounted for economic or social influences of scale in vaccination programmes. Many of the studies included had gaps in both premise and methodology. If these analyses are used when planning and budgeting FMD control programmes in endemic contexts, there is a risk of inefficient resource allocation.

What drives small-scale farmers to vaccinate their multiple livestock species animals against common infectious diseases in Myanmar?

Livestock rearing is an important income source for small-scale farmers in Myanmar, but Foot and Mouth Disease (FMD) and Newcastle disease (ND) are major constraints to livestock production. A study was conducted to identify perceptions of farmers about FMD and ND disease risks and perceptions about vaccination practices by using the modified health belief model. The majority of livestock farmers (>70%) reported that they were aware of the risk and impact of FMD and ND and were willing to vaccinate their livestock (>60%). Focusing on three main livestock farmer groups, about 17.0% of cattle, 15.4% of village chicken, but only 2.3% of small ruminant owners, indicated that the non-availability of vaccinations in the villages was the major constraint to vaccinations (p<0.001), while in contrast twice as many small ruminant farmers compared to cattle and village chicken farmers indicated they had no knowledge about vaccinations and no funds to conduct vaccinations. Limited accessibility to vaccines and vaccinators was related to size of villages (p = 0.001 for cattle; p = 0.027 for small ruminants; p = 0.005 for village chicken). Willingness to vaccinate small ruminants against FMD was associated with the perceived impact of the disease on sales and accessibility of information about vaccination. Accessibility to information about ND vaccination influenced the willingness of village chicken farmers to conduct vaccinations. In addition, beliefs in the effectiveness of vaccinations played a major role in the willingness to carry out vaccinations on both, cattle (β = 0.3, p = 0.018) and village chicken farms (β = 0.5, p<0.001). Our study highlights that policies that increase the accessibility of vaccines and the dissemination of information about disease prevention and vaccination practices in villages of all sizes, have the potential to increase FMD and ND vaccination rates and thereby reduce outbreak occurrence in Myanmar. On the other hand, indirect factors, such as village size strongly influenced the availability of vaccinations.

Economic Considerations for Advancement Through the Progressive Control Pathway: Cost-Benefit Analysis of an FMD Disease-Free Zone in Punjab Province, Pakistan.

Foot-and-mouth disease (FMD) is a priority disease of livestock in Pakistan, which was classified in stage 2 of the Progressive Control Pathway (PCP-FMD) in 2015, aiming to reduce disease impact. Further progression requires efforts to reduce viral circulation that may ultimately result in being awarded official disease-free status by the World Organisation for Animal Health [Office International des Epizooties (OIE)]. Typically, FMD control is reliant on the extensive use of vaccines, requiring careful consideration of the costs and benefits to ensure investment is likely to provide a positive return. This study conducted a cost–benefit analysis (CBA) for a proposed zone within Punjab Province, Pakistan. Benefits were assumed to come from averted production losses and treatment costs and the costs based on typical measures required for establishing a disease-free zone. To estimate the impact of FMD at the farm level, models were created to estimate effects on milk production, offtakes, and changes in herd value over a 5-year period with different parameters used to represent the production systems present. Control strategy costs incorporated aspects of vaccination, surveillance, sanitary measures, program management, stakeholder engagement, preparatory studies, training, and capacity building. The results indicated a median benefit–cost ratio of 1.03 (90% central range 0.37, 1.63) with a median net present value of 1.99 billion Pakistan Rupees (90% central range −37.7, 37.0). The greatest cost was due to vaccination at 56%, followed by sanitary measures (including implementing and maintaining an animal ID system and quarantine stations around the zone) at 41%. Although the median benefit–cost ratio and net present value indicated that investment is likely to generate a positive return, the large variation indicates caution in interpreting the results and it is possible that an increase in animal value through new export markets will be required. Further refinement in our knowledge of disease impact and the details of the control strategy are needed. Moreover, there are implications regarding vaccine security, since the strategy is reliant on the steady provision of quality vaccines in order to achieve the anticipated benefits, raising important issues on vaccine availability for countries to maintain lucrative export markets for FMD.

REVIEW ON EPIDEMIOLOGY OF FOOT AND MOUTH DISEASE (FMD) IN ETHIOPIA

Foot and mouth disease (FMD) is a highly contagious transboundary disease that affects all cloven hoofed animals. It is caused by a virus that belongs to the genus Aphthovirus of the family Picornaviridae. Foot and mouth disease virus (FMDV) occurs in seven standard serotypes: A, O, C, and South African Territories (SAT) 1, SAT 2, SAT 3, and Asia1. The disease has a high morbidity although mortality is rare in adult animals. The impact posed by the disease is enormous. It affects animal’s performance directly through reduction of milk yield. Death of young animals and fertility impairment due to increased abortion rate are also the grave consequences of the disease. FMD has a great potential for causing severe economic loss. Greatest losses can result from refusal of FMD free countries to import livestock and livestock products from infected region. The disease has been present in almost every part of the world where livestock are kept. More than 100 countries are still affected by FMD worldwide and distribution of the disease roughly reflects economic development. Despite considerable information being available about the virus, the disease and vaccines, FMD remains a major threat to the livestock industry worldwide. FMD is endemic disease in Ethiopia with multiple serotypes in circulation at varying prevalence levels. Estimation of economic losses by FMD can provide a better overall view of the impact of the disease on national economy and can contribute in estimating the extent of the losses to be avoided and also understanding its transmission dynamics can contribute for suggesting appropriate control intervention mechanism. In Ethiopia there is limited research done on this aspect. Many resources have been and still are devoted to surveillance and molecular characterization of FMD, therefore the aims of this seminar paper are to review the major risk factors for transmission of disease, review the economic impact of FMD and suggest prevention and control measures.

Economic Impact of FMD in cattle and buffaloes in India

In India, among various diseases that limit livestock production, Foot and Mouth Disease (FMD) stands first and affects thousands of animals every year. The estimation of loss due to FMD is of paramount importance for designing appropriate control plans. The economic impact studies on various livestock diseases including FMD are very minimal and hence this study assessed the economic loss due to FMD in cattle and buffaloes in few states and overall loss in the country. The total loss estimated comprise of milk yield reduction, unavailability of draught power, distress sale, treatment cost, mortality and opportunity cost of labour based on primary survey undertaken in 10 states and one Union territory. The results revealed that there was variation in loss levels between species and among the study states due to variation in disease incidence and severity levels, productive capacity of the animals, animal health infrastructure in the respective states, etc. The total estimated loss due to FMD in cattle and buffalo was INR 20,897 crore during 2013-14 with wide variation in magnitude across the states studied. The study provided empirical evidence of loss due to FMD in cattle and buffaloes in few states and overall loss in the country.

Economic Analysis of Increasing Foot-and-Mouth Disease Vaccination Frequency: The Case of the Biannual Mass Vaccination Strategy.

Biannual mass vaccination is a routinely applied foot-and-mouth disease (FMD) control strategy in Turkey. However, because biannual mass vaccination may leave significant immunity gaps, this strategy may cause economic losses because of possible FMD infections. In high-risk areas—such as border cities, it was suggested by the government to increase the vaccination intervals in order to decrease the FMD infection risk. This study analyses and compares the economic effects of a biannual mass vaccination regime and vaccination every 4 months as an alternative strategy in border cities by using partial budgeting approach. Biannual mass vaccination was used as a baseline scenario. Data on the impact of FMD on animal health and production parameters for 2018 were obtained from the OIE-WAHIS system and complemented by literature data and expert opinion. In the partial budgeting model, weight loss was considered as a major loss of income because majority of the farming systems are based on cattle fattening in the border cities of Turkey. Results revealed that the net economic impact, which is the benefit that exceeds the losses and costs of increasing the frequency of vaccination, is 76.4 TL ($15.9) per cattle. The sensitivity analysis showed that average body weight and weight losses when infected had more effect on net impact changes than market prices. The lower and upper FMD incidence variability resulted in 19.2 TL ($4) and 190.8 TL ($39.6) of net impact per cattle, respectively. The new FMD control strategy would make a total net economic impact of 5,274,836 TL ($1,094,250) for a population of 800,970 fattening cattle in border cities. The results of this study indicated that intense FMD control strategies may be more cost effective than the current control strategies, especially in high-risk areas. Future studies with more comprehensive epidemiological and economic data must be conducted to analyze and compare alternative FMD control strategies in Turkey.

Estimating the location of individual livestock holdings and their populations in two developing countries for use in spatial disease spread models

Infectious diseases of food animals, such as Foot-and-Mouth Disease (FMD), pose severe impacts on animal trade, animal products and subsequently endanger global food security. FMD is endemic in many parts of the world and is associated with substantial economic losses, which require risk assessments, preparedness planning, and evaluation of the effectiveness of mitigation strategies that fit within a country’s sociopolitical and socioeconomic constraints. Spatially-explicit stochastic simulation models (SESS) have become a common tool for estimating the spread and impact of FMD. SESS models incorporate uncertainty in the input and output parameters, heterogeneity in disease processes, and integrate geographic locations and spatial proximity of holdings that affect their relative exposure and transmission risk. An essential input to these models is locational data for holdings of animals and associated animal populations in each holding.Several efforts have been made to predict the location and population of livestock holdings or population density at different spatial resolutions. These methods or data cannot be used in developing countries because either the data is too coarse, or the inputs required for the methods are not available in resource-limited countries. As such, there is a need to adapt the practical and reliable existing methods to generate simulated datasets depicting the location and population of individual livestock holdings in developing countries for use in SESS models.We generated spatially-resolved simulated datasets for the location and population density of individual livestock holdings in Pakistan and Thailand. Firstly, we microsimulated and downscaled the census data to individual holdings based on statistical distributions. Second, geospatial probability surfaces were created based on a survey of expert veterinarians and empirical holding locations. Third, holdings were randomly placed on the probability surface based on a set of rules. These holdings were assigned population of livestock by joining downscaled data and random holdings. The combined dataset on the location and population of individual livestock holdings was, finally, used to generate the density of holdings.To our knowledge, this was the first attempt to estimate the locations and populations of individual livestock holdings in developing countries. These data pave the way for the application of SESS models in developing countries to understand the spread of FMD and evaluate mitigation strategies. The control of such an important animal disease would improve livestock health, improve economic gains for producers, and help alleviate poverty and hunger, which will complement efforts to attain the 2030 Sustainable Development Goals.

Farmers' willingness to pay for foot and mouth disease vaccine in different cattle production systems in Amhara region of Ethiopia.

Although foot and mouth disease (FMD) is endemic in Ethiopia, use of vaccines to control the disease has been practiced sparingly. This is due to perceived high cost of good quality FMD vaccine, and consequently limited availability of the vaccine in the market. This study was conducted to assess farmers' willingness to pay (WTP) for a quality FMD vaccine and identify factors that could potentially influence their WTP in Amhara region of Ethiopia. A total of 398 farmers from four districts that represent the mixed crop-livestock and market oriented production systems were enrolled for the study. The WTP was estimated using contingent valuation method with a double-bound dichotomous choice bid design. Interval regression analysis was used to estimate mean WTP and identify factors that influence it. The results showed that the mean WTP of all farmers was Ethiopian Birr (ETB) 58.23 (95% CI: 56.20-60.26)/annual dose. It was ETB 75.23 (95% CI: 72. 97-74.49) for market oriented farmers and ETB 42.6 (95%CI: 41.24-43.96) for mixed crop livestock farmers. Willingness to pay for the vaccine was significantly higher for farmers in market oriented system than in mixed crop livestock system. It was also significantly higher for farmers whose main livelihood is livestock than those whose main livelihood is other than livestock, and for farmers who keep exotic breed cattle and their crosses than those who keep only local cattle breeds. Willingness to pay significantly increased with increase in FMD impact perception and vaccine knowledge scores of farmers. The high mean WTP estimates showed that farmers are enthusiastic about using the FMD vaccine. Market-oriented farmers with higher willingness to pay may be more likely to pay full cost if official FMD vaccination is planned in the country than mixed crop livestock farmers. Animal health extension about livestock diseases impact and vaccines has a potential to increase farmers' uptake of vaccines for disease control.

Socio-economic impact of Foot-and-Mouth Disease outbreaks and control measures: An analysis of Mongolian outbreaks in 2017.

Mongolia is a large landlocked country in Central Asia and has one of the highest per capita livestock ratios in the world. During 2017, reported foot-and-mouth disease (FMD) outbreaks in Mongolia increased considerably, prompting widespread disease control measures. This study estimates the socio-economic impact of FMD and subsequent control measures on Mongolian herders. The analysis encompassed quantification of the impact on subsistence farmers' livelihoods and food security and estimation of the national-level gross losses due to reaction and expenditure during 2017. Data were collected from 112 herders across eight provinces that reported disease. Seventy of these herders had cases of FMD, while 42 did not have FMD in their animals but were within quarantine zones. Overall, 86/112 herders reported not drinking milk for a period of time and 38/112 reduced their meat consumption. Furthermore, 55 herders (49.1%) had to borrow money to buy food, medicines and/or pay bills or bank loans. Among herders with FMD cases, the median attack rate was 31.7%, 3.8% and 0.59% in cattle, sheep and goats, respectively, with important differences across provinces. Herders with clinical cases before the winter had higher odds of reporting a reduction in their meat consumption. National-level gross losses due to FMD in 2017 were estimated using government data. The estimate of gross economic loss was 18.4 billion Mongolian-tugriks (US$7.35 million) which equates to approximately 0.65% of the Mongolian GDP. The FMD outbreaks combined with current control measures have negatively impacted herders' livelihoods (including herders with and without cases of FMD) which are likely to reduce stakeholder advocacy. Possible strategies that could be employed to ameliorate the negative effects of the current control policy were identified. The findings and approach are relevant to other FMD endemic regions aiming to control the disease.

Economic impact assessment of foot-and-mouth disease burden and control in pastoral local dairy cattle production systems in Northern Nigeria: A cross-sectional survey

Milk has been envisaged as a major source of high-quality protein and bioavailable nutrients to humans. Its production is constraint by foot and mouth disease (FMD), a contagious viral disease of very high economic importance worldwide. This study was aimed at assessing the economic impact of FMD in pastoral dairy cattle herds in Nigeria and determines returns to investments in its control to better inform policy decisions. An interview questionnaire-based cross-sectional study was conducted in 660 nomadic and agro-pastoral dairy cattle herds in 2019. Economic impact analyses were conducted using the total economic cost and benefit-cost analysis models. Of the 660 pastoralists enrolled, 92.6% (n = 611) participated. Nomadic pastoralists constituted 50.7% (n = 310) of the respondents while 49.3% (n = 301) were agro-pastoralists. Most of the respondents (66.4%, n = 406) had no formal education. The value of visible losses to the herders was estimated at USD 15,591,694.30 and the cost of control by treatment of secondary infections was USD 463,673.70. The economic impact of FMD due to production losses and costs of treatment to pastoralists was estimated to be USD 16,055,368.00. Return on investment in FMD control was positive with a benefit-cost ratio of 33.6. The estimated total economic costs due to FMD have indicated that it is a disease of high economic importance to dairy production herds and must be controlled to assure food security, local incomes to herders, and protein requirement of human population, especially the children in FMD endemic countries.

Endemic foot and mouth disease: pastoral in-herd disease dynamics in sub-Saharan Africa

Foot and mouth disease (FMD) burden disproportionally affects Africa where it is considered endemic. Smallholder livestock keepers experience significant losses due to disease, but the dynamics and mechanisms underlying persistence at the herd-level and beyond remain poorly understood. We address this knowledge gap using stochastic, compartmental modelling to explore FMD virus (FMDV) persistence, outbreak dynamics and disease burden in individual cattle herds within an endemic setting. Our analysis suggests repeated introduction of virus from outside the herd is required for long-term viral persistence, irrespective of carrier presence. Risk of new disease exposures resulting in significant secondary outbreaks is reduced by the presence of immune individuals giving rise to a period of reduced risk, the predicted duration of which suggests that multiple strains of FMDV are responsible for observed yearly herd-level outbreaks. Our analysis suggests management of population turnover could potentially reduce disease burden and deliberate infection of cattle, practiced by local livestock keepers in parts of Africa, has little effect on the duration of the reduced risk period but increases disease burden. This work suggests that FMD control should be implemented beyond individual herds but, in the interim, herd management may be used to reduced FMD impact to livestock keepers.

Global Foot-and-Mouth Disease Research Update and Gap Analysis: 2 - Epidemiology, Wildlife and Economics.

We assessed knowledge gaps in foot-and-mouth disease (FMD) research, and in this study, we consider (i) epidemiology, (ii) wildlife and (iii) economics. The study took the form of a literature review (2011-2015) combined with research updates collected in 2014 from 33 institutes from across the world. Findings were used to identify priority areas for future FMD research. During 2011-2015, modelling studies were dominant in the broad field of epidemiology; however, continued efforts are required to develop robust models for use during outbreaks in FMD-free countries, linking epidemiologic and economics models. More guidance is needed for both the evaluation and the setting of targets for vaccine coverage, population immunity and vaccine field efficacy. Similarly, methods for seroprevalence studies need to be improved to obtain more meaningful outputs that allow comparison across studies. To inform control programmes in endemic countries, field trials assessing the effectiveness of vaccination in extensive smallholder systems should be performed to determine whether FMD can be controlled with quality vaccines in settings where implementing effective biosecurity is challenging. Studies need to go beyond measuring only vaccine effects and should extend our knowledge of the impact of FMD and increase our understanding of how to maximize farmer participation in disease control. Where wildlife reservoirs of virus exist, particularly African Buffalo, we need to better understand when and under what circumstances transmission to domestic animals occurs in order to manage this risk appropriately, considering the impact of control measures on livelihoods and wildlife. For settings where FMD eradication is unfeasible, further ground testing of commodity-based trade is recommended. A thorough review of global FMD control programmes, covering successes and failures, would be extremely valuable and could be used to guide other control programmes.

Foot-and-Mouth Disease Impact on Smallholders - What Do We Know, What Don't We Know and How Can We Find Out More?

SummaryFoot‐and‐mouth disease (FMD) endemic regions contain three‐quarters of the world's FMD susceptible livestock and most of the world's poor livestock keepers. Yet FMD impact on smallholders in these regions is poorly understood. Diseases of low mortality can exert a large impact if incidence is high. Modelling and field studies commonly find high FMD incidence in endemic countries. Sero‐surveys typically find a third of young cattle are sero‐positive, however, the proportion of sero‐positive animals that developed disease, and resulting impact, are unknown. The few smallholder FMD impact studies that have been performed assessed different aspects of impact, using different approaches. They find that FMD impact can be high (>10% of annual household income). However, impact is highly variable, being a function of FMD incidence and dependency on activities affected by FMD. FMD restricts investment in productive but less FMD‐resilient farming methods, however, other barriers to efficient production may exist, reducing the benefits of FMD control. Applying control measures is costly and can have wide‐reaching negative impacts; veterinary‐cordon‐fences may damage wildlife populations, and livestock movement restrictions and trade bans damage farmer profits and the wider economy. When control measures are ineffective, farmers, society and wildlife may experience the burden of control without reducing disease burden. Foot‐and‐mouth disease control has benefitted smallholders in South America and elsewhere. Success takes decades of regional cooperation with effective veterinary services and widespread farmer participation. However, both the likelihood of success and the full cost of control measures must be considered. Controlling FMD in smallholder systems is challenging, particularly when movement restrictions are hard to enforce. In parts of Africa this is compounded by endemically infected wildlife and limited vaccine performance. This paper reviews FMD impact on smallholders in endemic countries. Significant evidence gaps exist and guidance on the design of FMD impact studies is provided.

Is Hiding Foot and Mouth Disease Sensitive Behavior for Farmers? A Survey Study in Sri Lanka.

Foot and mouth disease (FMD) has a long history in Sri Lanka and was found to be endemic in various parts of the country and constitutes a constant threat to farmers. In Sri Lanka, currently there is no regular, nationwide vaccination programme devised to control FMD. Therefore, improving farmers’ knowledge regarding distinguishing FMD from other diseases and ensuring prompt reporting of any suspicion of FMD as well as restricting movement of animals are critical activities for an effective FMD response effort. Therefore, the main purpose of this study was to clarify the relationship between farmers’ knowledge levels and their behaviors to establish a strategy to control FMD. In our study, item count technique was applied to estimate the number of farmers that under-report and sell FMD-infected animals, although to do so is prohibited by law. The following findings were observed: about 63% of farmers have very poor knowledge of routes of FMD transmission; ‘under-reporting’ was found to be a sensitive behavior and nearly 23% of the farmers were reluctant to report FMD-infected animals; and ‘selling FMD-infected animals’ is a sensitive behavior among high-level knowledge group while it is a non-sensitive behavior among the low-level knowledge group. If farmers would understand the importance of prompt reporting, they may report any suspected cases of FMD to veterinary officials. However, even if farmers report honestly, they do not want to cull FMD-infected animals. Thus, education programs should be conducted not only on FMD introduction and transmission, but also its impact. Furthermore, consumers may criticize the farmers for culling their infected animals. Hence, not only farmers, but also consumers need to be educated on the economic impact of FMD and the importance of controlling an outbreak. If farmers have a high knowledge of FMD transmission, they consider selling FMD-infected animals as a sensitive behavior. Therefore, severe punishment should be levied for selling FMD-infected animals.

Impact of foot-and-mouth disease on mastitis and culling on a large-scale dairy farm in Kenya.

Foot and mouth disease (FMD) is a highly transmissible viral infection of cloven hooved animals associated with severe economic losses when introduced into FMD-free countries. Information on the impact of the disease in FMDV-endemic countries is poorly characterised yet essential for the prioritisation of scarce resources for disease control programmes. A FMD (virus serotype SAT2) outbreak on a large-scale dairy farm in Nakuru County, Kenya provided an opportunity to evaluate the impact of FMD on clinical mastitis and culling rate. A cohort approach followed animals over a 12-month period after the commencement of the outbreak. For culling, all animals were included; for mastitis, those over 18 months of age. FMD was recorded in 400/644 cattle over a 29-day period. During the follow-up period 76 animals were culled or died whilst in the over 18 month old cohort 63 developed clinical mastitis. Hazard ratios (HR) were generated using Cox regression accounting for non-proportional hazards by inclusion of time-varying effects. Univariable analysis showed FMD cases were culled sooner but there was no effect on clinical mastitis. After adjusting for possible confounders and inclusion of time-varying effects there was weak evidence to support an effect of FMD on culling (HR = 1.7, 95% confidence intervals [CI] 0.88-3.1, P = 0.12). For mastitis, there was stronger evidence of an increased rate in the first month after the onset of the outbreak (HR = 2.9, 95%CI 0.97-8.9, P = 0.057).Electronic supplementary materialThe online version of this article (doi:10.1186/s13567-015-0173-4) contains supplementary material, which is available to authorized users.