Foot-and-mouth Disease Epidemics Research Articles

Animal Movements and FMDV Transmission during the High-Risk Period of the 2001 FMD Epidemic in Uruguay

During the 2001 foot-and-mouth disease (FMD) epidemic in Uruguay, many farms were already infected and foot-and-mouth disease virus (FMDV) had spread throughout the country by the time the first outbreak was detected and a ban on animal movements was implemented. Before this ban, movements of infected animals between livestock premises were probably one of the main factors contributing to the spread of the disease. Understanding and quantifying this contribution allow identifying risk premises or risk areas to help policymakers to implement effective interventions and enhance targeted surveillance. The aim of this study was to describe, visualize, and analyze the network of livestock movements between livestock premises during the initial phase of the 2001 FMD epidemic in Uruguay and gain insight into the risk of transmission by estimating the between herd basic reproduction number (RH) before a ban on animal movements was implemented. Here, we derived RH from the average number of outcontacts of infected premises and the average probability that a contact leads to infection. Additionally, we analyzed the current (2022) network of livestock movements in Uruguay, for the same period as in 2001, and estimated RH assuming the same probability of infection as in 2001. We found that the movements of infected animals during the high-risk period of this epidemic—i.e., the period between FMDV introduction and the detection of the index case—had an important contribution to the virus spread among premises (RH = 1.48). Livestock markets and highly connected farms were responsible for the early long-distance spread of FMDV. The analysis of the 2022 network shows that this network is similar to that of 2001 and highlights the importance of targeting highly connected premises, particularly livestock markets, for surveillance, target early detection, and implement interventions during epidemics.

Bovine Sero- surveillance of Foot- and – Mouth Disease in Four States in Nigeria

Animals with cloven hooves are susceptible to highly contagious foot and mouth disease (FMD). FMD epidemics have affected several underdeveloped countries, including Nigeria. The migration of pastoralist animals has been linked to FMD transmission in Nigeria, and surveillance is essential for assessing the threat and impact of FMD, as well as the emergence of PCP-FMD. Here, we report the sero-surveillance of FMD in cattle in four states in Nigeria in 2019. Sera collected from four states (Anambra, Enugu, Imo, and Katsina) were tested for antibodies against FMD non-structural protein (NSP), with an overall prevalence of 45%. Significantly higher seroprevalence was recorded in Imo (63%), followed by Kastina (56%), Anambra (29%), and Enugu (6%). An overall serotype-specific prevalence of 81%, 35 %, 50 %, and 35% was recorded for serotypes O, A, 50% for SAT 2, and SAT 1, respectively. Furthermore, circulating antibodies against four serotypes of FMDV were found in 16% of sera samples, 20% had antibodies against three circulating serotypes, 33% had antibodies against two serotypes, and 25% showed exposure to only one serotype, indicating exposure to multiple FMD serotypes. These findings demonstrate the presence of FMDV antibodies in cattle across all surveyed states, which may be related to the presence of multiple FMDV serotypes (O, A, SAT1and SAT2) and concurrent co-infection in these states. Therefore, there is a need for the continuous surveillance of FMD in Nigeria. This will help ascertain the burden of the disease and enable the implementation of necessary control measures to stop its potential transmission and further spread. This sero-surveillance data expands our understanding of the FMD situation in Nigeria and is crucial for determining the country’s FMD risk in order to advance the PCP-FMD.

Seroprevalence of serotype O of foot-and-mouth disease virus in vaccinated pigs and cattle in Ho Chi Minh City

The aim of this study was to assess the seroprevalence against serotype O FMD (foot and mouth disease) virus in vaccinated pigs and cattle in Ho Chi Minh City, as a basis to serve the prevention of FMD epidemics in these animals. A total of 535 pigs and 366cattle sera were tested by using the Elisa kit for the detection of serotype O FMD antibody (Pirbright, UK). Results of this study showed that most pig farms had the proportions of positive animals for antibodies against FMDV serotype O which met the requirements of Decision no. 07/2016/ Ministry of Agriculture and Rural Development, except Xuan Thoi Thuong, Thai My and Phu My Hung. All sows had high levels of antibodies against serotype O FMD virus. There were no significant differences in the ratios of positive pigs for antibodies against FMDV serotype O among types of pig and age groups. However, there were significant differences in the seroprevalence of vaccinated pigs across herd sizes and days post-vaccination. Meanwhile, the overall seroprevalence of vaccinated cattle against FMDV at individual-level was over 80.00%. No statistical differences were found in the seroprevalence of vaccinated cattle against type OFMDV among regions, types of cattle, herd sizes, age groups and days post-vaccination. In conclusion, pigs raised in farms of Xuan Thoi Thuong, Thai My and Phu My Hung communes should be revaccinated with FMD vaccine to prevent the risk of pigs being infected with FMD virus and reduce the amount of virus produced by an infected animal.

The implementation of cattle market closure strategies to mitigate the foot-and-mouth disease epidemics: A contact modeling approach

Foot-and-mouth disease (FMD) is one of the most endemic diseases in livestock worldwide. The disease occurrence generally results in a huge economic impact. The virus may distribute across countries or even continents along the contact network of animal movements. The present study, therefore, aimed to explore a cattle movement network originated in Tak, a Thailand-Myanmar bordered province and to demonstrate how FMDV spread among the nodes of market, source and destination. Subsequently, we examined the effectiveness of market closure intervention. The market-market (M-M) network was constructed to highlight the inter-market connections and the FMDV was modeled to spread along the trade chain. Four market closure scenarios based on rapidness and duration of implementation were examined. Our results indicate that two of the three major markets located in the province were highly connected and a strongly connected component was identified. The intra-provincial animal movements, which were currently overlooked, should be moved into sights as most of the high-risk sources for FMD epidemics were recognized in a close proximity to the cattle markets. Simultaneously, remote destinations across the country were identified. The inter-provincial animal movement control must be strengthened once FMD outbreak is notified. Based on our simulations, closing markets with low inter-market connectivity may not prevent the spread of FMDV. A selective market closure strategy targeting highly connected markets together with cattle trader tracking system was an alternative approach. However, socio-economic consequences regarding this intervention must be considered.

SOCIO-ECONOMIC IMPACTS OF EPIDEMIC DISEASES OF FARM ANIMALS

Based on desk research and literature review, the paper identifies the effects of farm animal disease outbreaks from the economic perspective. It provides a brief overview of broad impacts of trans-boundary animal diseases such as Bovine Spongiform Encephalopathy (BSE) and Foot and Mouth Disease (FMD) on the economy and society. It also presents a synthetic summary of the results of several studies dealing with the assessment and estimation of the costs of BSE and FMD epidemics in selected countries. The two epidemics were costly, both in monetary and non-monetary terms. Assessed direct and indirect economic losses were equivalent to several billion US dollars or euro in the countries under consideration. The economies depending on the export of live animals and meat products (e.g. the UK and Canada) were particularly affected. The economic welfare losses from hypothetical FMD outbreak in the USA could exceed a hundred billion US dollars. From the political perspective, government-run policies aimed at controlling and eradicating dangerous animal diseases seem to find the justification primarily in economic rationality or international competitiveness arguments.

Spatiotemporal analysis of foot-and-mouth disease outbreaks in the Republic of Kazakhstan, 1955 - 2013

Foot-and-mouth disease (FMD) poses a significant obstacle to international trade and economic development, and for that reason, FMD prevention, control and eradication are major goals guiding animal health policy in most countries. The purpose of this study was to conduct a retrospective spatiotemporal analysis of FMD outbreaks among livestock in the Republic of Kazakhstan (RK) from 1955 to 2013. During that time, several FMD control strategies were implemented in RK, which culminated with the World Organization for Animal Health (OIE) recognition of RK as a country that is FMD-free with partial vaccination (2015). Here, we describe and analyse the changes in spatial and temporal dynamics of FMD under different control strategies that were utilized as the country progressively moved towards eradication of the disease. A total number of 5,260 FMD outbreaks of serotype O and A (including the A22 lineage) were recorded in the cattle, pig and small ruminant populations of RK during that period. We found that outbreaks occurred in spatiotemporal clusters only prior to 1970, which is before ring vaccination around outbreaks was first employed. This finding suggests that ring vaccination substantially reduced local spread and prevented large FMD epidemics in the country. Disease incidence steadily decreased after the implementation of ring vaccination and culling of infected animals, with spatiotemporal clusters only occurring as a result of an introduction of an antigenically distinct variant of serotype A. From 1955 to 1984, FMD outbreaks demonstrated two seasonal peaks of incidence in the spring and fall. In contrast, only the peak in spring was observed between 1984 and 2013. Quantitative knowledge on how different policy and alternative control strategies contributed to RK achieving FMD-free status could improve prospects for continued control in RK and inform control strategies in other FMD-endemic regions.

Prevalence and risk factors for foot and mouth disease infection in cattle in Israel

Foot and mouth disease (FMD) is a highly contagious viral disease with major economic consequences. In Israel, FMD epidemics recur almost every year and mostly affect cattle. The highest number of outbreaks occurs among beef cattle farms, followed by feedlot farms and dairy farms. We performed several cross-sectional serological studies in Israel during 2006–2014, aimed to reveal if the virus is endemic among cattle and to determine the sero-prevalence of antibodies directed against non-structural proteins (NSP) of FMD virus. Additionally we aimed to determine the risk factors for such sero-positivity. A risk based sampling was performed and the presence of anti-NSP antibodies was estimated using the PrioCHECK® ELISA kit. Beef cattle showed the highest sero-prevalence (13.2%, CI95%=10.8–15.8%). Higher FMD sero-prevalence in beef cattle sampled in 2014 was associated with previous FMD outbreaks in the farm and with age (adult cows versus calves (p<0.05)). Sero-prevalence in feedlot calves was significantly lower with only one sero-positive calf out of 256 (0.4%, CI95%=0–2.2%). Sero-prevalence among dairy cattle was 2.7% (CI95%=2–3.6%) with location of up to 3km from FMD outbreaks in multiple farms and location of up to 5km from the nearest border standing out as significant (p<0.05) risk factors for sero-positivity. The extremely low sero-prevalence of FMD in feedlot cattle and the significant association of infection in beef cattle with previous outbreaks suggest absence of virus circulation between these two populations during the study period, although previous data show that during outbreaks such transmission can occur. Low sero-prevalence in dairy cattle located in areas adjacent to previous FMD outbreaks may be attributed to intense routine vaccination and stringent control measures that were applied during outbreaks such as emergency vaccination and strict quarantine. Early detection of FMD outbreaks among grazing beef herds as well as the implementation of control measures among these farms are therefore the methods of choice to prevent future outbreaks in Israel.

Potential impact of species and livestock density on the epidemic size and effectiveness of control measures for foot-and-mouth disease in Japan.

The characteristics of a livestock area, including farm density and animal species, influence the spread of foot-and-mouth disease (FMD). In this study, the impact of livestock area on FMD epidemics was examined using an FMD transmission model. For this simulation, three major livestock areas were selected: the 2010 FMD epidemic area in Japan as the baseline area (BS), a cattle and pig mixed production area (CP) and a cattle production area (C). Simulation results demonstrated that under the 24-hr culling policy, only 12% of epidemics among 1,000 simulations were abated within 100 days in the CP area, whereas 90% of the epidemics ceased in the BS area. In the C area, all epidemics were successfully contained within 100 days. Evaluation of additional control measures in the CP area showed that the 0.5-km pre-emptive culling, even when only targeting pig farms, raised the potential for successful containment to 94%. A 10-km vaccination on day 7 or 14 after initial detection was also effective in halting the epidemics (80%), but accompanied a large number of culled or vaccinated farms. The combined strategy of 10-km vaccination and 0.5-km pre-emptive culling targeting pig farms succeeded in containing all epidemics within 100 days. The present study suggests the importance of preparedness for the 24-hr culling policy and additional control measures when an FMD outbreak occurs in a densely populated area. Considering the characteristics of the livestock area is important in planning FMD control strategies.

Foot-and-mouth disease: overview of motives of disease spread and efficacy of available vaccines.

Control and prevention of foot and mouth disease (FMD) by vaccination remains unsatisfactory in endemic countries. Indeed, consistent and new FMD epidemics in previously disease-free countries have precipitated the need for a worldwide control strategy. Outbreaks in vaccinated animals require that a new and safe vaccine be developed against foot and mouth virus (FMDV). FMDV can be eradicated worldwide based on previous scientific information about its spread using existing and modern control strategies.

Direct costs of five foot-and-mouth disease epidemics in the Republic of Korea, from 2000 to 2011

Foot-and-mouth disease (FMD) has great potential for causing huge economic loss and was the first disease identified by the World Organisation for Animal Health (OIE) in its official list of free countries and zones. This study examined the governmental expenditures for five FMD epidemics that occurred in the Republic of Korea between 2000 and 2011. The costs of an epidemic ranged from 26 billion Korean won (KRW, approximately 23.6 million US dollars, $) to a maximum of 2,044 billion KRW (US$ 1.9 billion). For two epidemics in which vaccinations were implemented, the costs were higher than those epidemics without vaccination. The mean cost for an outbreak ranged from 0.5 billion KRW (US$ 4.5 million) for the 2010/2011 epidemic to 18.2 billion KRW (US$ 16.5 million) for the 2000 epidemic. Mean costs per infected premises were 7.0 billion KRW for cattle farms (95% CI: 4.72 9.28), 1.38 billion KRW for pig farms (0.88 1.87), 0.11 billion KRW for deer farms (0.08 0.14), and 0.10 billion KRW for goat farms (0.07 0.13). The highest cost for an outbreak in cattle seemed associated with the number of outbreak cattle farms in two epidemics in which vaccination was implemented.

Epidemiology of the Foot-and-Mouth Disease Serotype O Epidemic of November 2010 to April 2011 in the Republic Of Korea

The largest epidemic of foot-and-mouth disease (FMD) in Korea since the first record in 1911 occurred between November 2010 and April 2011. The outbreak was confirmed in 153 farms, and more than three million animals were destroyed. This study presents the temporal and spatial distribution patterns, epidemiological investigation and the control measures for the 2010/2011 epidemic in Korea. The index case of this 2010/2011 FMD epidemic was reported in a pig-farming complex with five piggeries in Andong, GyeongBuk Province, on 28 November 2010, and the outbreak lasted 145 days. The largest number of new detection of the infected farms per day was recorded in mid-January. Epidemiological investigation revealed that the FMD virus had spread from farm to farm through routine movements associated with animal husbandry operations. In contrast to FMD epidemics in other countries in which movement of the infected animals largely contributed to the spread of the disease, human behaviours were major factors in the spread of the FMD virus in the Korean epidemic. The 2010/2011 epidemic was first confirmed in a local small and medium city where share of smallholder producers is higher than that of other provinces. Although Korea had a well-developed emergent response system with the experience of controlling infection and re-obtaining FMD-free status after the previous epidemics, Korea was prompted to revise their contingency plan by tailoring it to its unique livestock environment. Practical contingency plans tailored to Korea for control of FMD can be fully effective when farmers, livestock-related agencies, veterinary service providers and the general public work together.

Vaccination against foot-and-mouth disease I: Epidemiological consequences

An epidemic of foot-and-mouth disease (FMD) can have devastating effects on animal welfare, economic revenues, the export position and society as a whole, as occurred during the 2001 FMD epidemic in the Netherlands. Following the preemptive culling of 260,000 animals during this outbreak, the Dutch government adopted emergency vaccination as preferred control policy. However, a vaccination-to-live strategy has not been applied before, posing unprecedented challenges for effectively controlling the epidemic, regaining FMD-free status and minimizing economic losses. These three topics are covered in an interdisciplinary model analysis. In this first part we evaluate whether and how emergency vaccination can be effectively applied to control FMD epidemics in the Netherlands. For this purpose we develop a stochastic individual-based model that describes FMD virus transmission between animals and between herds, taking heterogeneity between host species (cattle, sheep and pigs) into account. Our results in a densely populated livestock area with >4farms/km2 show that emergency ring vaccination can halt the epidemic as rapidly as preemptive ring culling, while the total number of farms to be culled is reduced by a factor of four. To achieve this reduction a larger control radius around detected farms and a corresponding adequate vaccination capacity is needed. Although sufficient for the majority of simulated epidemics with a 2km vaccination zone, the vaccination capacity available in the Netherlands can be exhausted by pig farms that are on average ten times larger than cattle herds. Excluding pig farms from vaccination slightly increases the epidemic, but more than halves the number of animals to be vaccinated. Hobby flocks – modelled as small-sized sheep flocks – do not play a significant role in propagating the epidemic, and need not be targeted during the control phase. In a more sparsely populated livestock area in the Netherlands with about 2farms/km2 the minimal control strategy of culling only detected farms seems sufficient to control an epidemic.

Combining livestock trade patterns with phylogenetics to help understand the spread of foot and mouth disease in sub-Saharan Africa, the Middle East and Southeast Asia

International trade in animals and their products is recognised as a primary determinant of the global epidemiology of transboundary diseases such as foot and mouth disease (FMD). As well as causing serious production losses, FMD is highly contagious, being transmitted through multiple routes and hosts, which makes it one of the most important diseases affecting trade in livestock. Its occurrence has dramatic consequences for the agricultural economy of a normally disease-free country, as well as for the livelihoods and income generation of developing countries where the disease continues to be endemic. In the dynamic of FMD virus (FMDV) dispersal across the globe, phylogenetic inference from molecular sequences of isolated viruses makes a significant contribution to investigating the evolutionary and spatial pathways underlying the source of FMD epidemics. Matching data on livestock movement with molecular epidemiology can enhance our fundamental understanding when reconstructing the spread of the virus between geographical regions, which is essential for the development of FMD control strategies worldwide. This paper reviews the global situation of FMD in the last ten years, combining phylogenetic insights with information on livestock production systems and international trade to analyse the epidemiological dynamics of FMD and the sources of FMDV introductions at a regional level in sub-Saharan Africa, the Middle East and Southeast Asia.

Factors Associated With Within-Herd Transmission of Serotype A Foot-and-Mouth Disease Virus in Cattle, During the 2001 Outbreak in Argentina: A Protective Effect of Vaccination

Argentina suffered an extensive foot-and-mouth disease (FMD) epidemic between July 2000 and January 2002, 3 months after obtaining the official FMD-free without vaccination status conferred by the World Organization for Animal Health. This is one of the largest FMD epidemics controlled by implementation of a systematic mass vaccination campaign in an FMD-free country. In 2000, 124 herds were reported as FMD positive, 2394 herds in 2001 and one in January 2002; the total number of cattle herds in the country at that time was approximately 230 000. Estimates of FMD transmission are important to understand the dynamics of disease spread and for estimating the value for the parameterization of disease transmission models, with the ultimate goals of predicting its spread, assessing and designing control strategies, conducting economic analyses and supporting the decision-making process. In this study, the within-herd coefficient of transmission, β, was computed for herds affected in the 2001 FMD epidemic and categorized as low or high based on the median value of β. A logistic regression model was fitted to identify factors significantly associated with high values of β. Results suggested that the odds of having a high within-herd transmission were significantly associated with time from initial herd infection to disease detection, date of report, vaccination, and time from initial herd infection to herd vaccination. Results presented in this study demonstrate, in quantifiable terms, the protective impact of vaccination in reducing FMD transmission in infected herds. These results will be useful for the parameterization of epidemiological models aimed at quantifying the impact of vaccination and for the design and implementation of FMD emergency vaccination strategies in face of an epidemic.

A new decision support framework for managing foot-and-mouth disease epidemics

Animal disease epidemics such as the foot-and-mouth disease (FMD) pose recurrent threat to countries with intensive livestock production. Efficient FMD control is crucial in limiting the damage of FMD epidemics and securing food production. Decision making in FMD control involves a hierarchy of decisions made at strategic, tactical, and operational levels. These decisions are interdependent and have to be made under uncertainty about future development of the epidemic. Addressing this decision problem, this paper presents a new decision-support framework based on multi-level hierarchic Markov processes (MLHMP). The MLHMP model simultaneously optimizes decisions at strategic, tactical, and operational levels, using Bayesian forecasting methods to model uncertainty and learning about the epidemic. As illustrated by the example, the framework is especially useful in contingency planning for future FMD epidemics.

A simulation model for the potential spread of foot-and-mouth disease in the Castile and Leon region of Spain

A spatial stochastic model was used to simulate the spread of a foot-and-mouth disease (FMD) epidemic in the Castile-and-Leon (CyL) region of Spain. The model was fitted using information available on premises demographics and on assumptions for animal movements, indirect contacts, and airborne exposure. Control measures dictated by Spanish and European Union regulations constituted a reference strategy to which six alternative control strategies were compared. For the reference strategy, the median (95% PI) numbers of infected, depopulated, and quarantined premises were 141 (2–1099), 164 (4–1302), and 334 (31–2059), respectively. Depopulation and vaccination of premises within a radius of <1 km and <3 km, respectively, around infected premises significantly ( p-value < 0.001) decreased the number of infected premises, compared to the reference scenario. Results presented here will contribute to the revision, design, and implementation of contingency plans and programs for prevention and control of FMD epidemics in Spain.

A modelling approach to support dynamic decision-making in the control of FMD epidemics

Most studies on control strategies for contagious diseases such as foot-and-mouth disease (FMD) evaluate pre-defined control strategies and imply static decision-making during epidemic control. Such a static approach contradicts the dynamic nature of the decision-making process during epidemic control. This paper presents an integrated epidemic-economic modelling approach to support dynamic decision-making in controlling FMD epidemics. This new modelling approach reflects ongoing uncertainty about epidemic growth during epidemic control and provides information required by a dynamic decision process. As demonstrated for a Dutch FMD-case, the modelling approach outperforms static evaluation of pre-fixed control strategies by: (1) providing guidance to decision-making during the entire control process; and (2) generating more realistic estimation of the costs of overreacting or underreacting in choosing control options.

Potential impact of introduction of foot-and-mouth disease from wild pigs into commercial livestock premises in California

To estimate potential spread of foot-and-mouth disease (FMD) if introduced from wild pigs in California and to evaluate efficacies of various control strategies. Data for California livestock and from hunter surveys on wild pigs in California. A spatial, stochastic simulation model was used to simulate FMD epidemics that might occur if a dairy or beef herd were infected from contact with a wild pig. Index herd location and type were examined, in addition to different statewide movement ban (SWMB) durations, to determine their effect on extent of the epidemic. Duration, number of infected premises, size of simulated outbreak, number of culled animals, and spatial distribution of infected herds resulting from the simulated outbreaks varied considerably among geographic regions, depending on index case type and location. Outbreaks beginning in the southern region of California were consistently longest, whereas those beginning in the northern region were shortest. The largest outbreaks resulted from index cases located in the southern and valley regions, whereas outbreaks were smallest when originating in the Sonoma or northern regions. For all regions, when the index herd was a dairy herd, size and duration of the outbreak were consistently reduced with implementation of an SWMB >or= 3 days. Introduction of FMDV from wild pigs into a dairy or beef herd could result in a large and rapidly spreading outbreak, potentially affecting large numbers of herds. Size and duration of the outbreak might be reduced with an SWMB; however, the impact is highly dependent on the index herd type and location.

Statistical modeling of holding level susceptibility to infection during the 2001 foot and mouth disease epidemic in Great Britain

Background An understanding of the factors that determine the risk of members of a susceptible population becoming infected is essential for estimating the potential for disease spread, as opposed to just focusing on transmission from an infected population. Furthermore, analysis of the risk factors can reveal important characteristics of an epidemic and further develop understanding of the processes operating. Methods This paper describes the development of a mixed effects logistic regression model of susceptibility of holdings to foot and mouth disease (FMD) during the 2001 epidemic in Great Britain following the imposition of a national ban on the movements of susceptible animals (NMB). Results The principal risk factors identified in the model were shorter distances to the nearest infectious seed (a holding infected before the NMB) and the county of the holding (principally Cumbria). Additional risk factors included holdings that are mixed species rather than single species, the surface area of the holding, and the number of cattle within 10 km (all p < 0.001), but not surrounding sheep densities ( p > 0.1). The fit of the model was evaluated using the area under the receiver operator characteristic curve (ROC) and the Hosmer and Lemeshow Chi-squared statistic; the fit was good with both tests (area under the ROC = 0.962 and Hosmer and Lemeshow Chi-squared statistic = 49.98 ( p > 0.1)). Conclusions Holdings at greatest risk of infection can be identified using simple readily available risk factors; this information could be employed in the control of future FMD epidemics.

Brotes de fiebre aftosa en Europa (1991-2005)

La fiebre aftosa (FA) ha sido considerada durante muchos años como la enfermedad animal más importante debido a sus consecuencias sanitarias y económicas. Actualmente la enfermedad es endémica en varios países, especialmente de África y Asia. Por el contrario, Europa es una zona libre, si bien se siguen produciendo epidemias de forma esporádica. Europa erradicó la fiebre aftosa por medio de campañas de vacunación profiláctica que finalizaron en 1991. A partir de esa fecha la prevención de epidemias se basa en el control de las importaciones de animales y sus productos. Si bien las medidas establecidas han conseguido en general mantener fuera de Europa el virus de fiebre aftosa, varios países se vieron afectados por epidemias de esta enfermedad entre 1991 y 2005. En este trabajo se revisan las epidemias más importantes agrupadas por el origen del brote: introducción de productos contaminados o de animales infectados. A pesar de las estrictas medidas de control establecidas en Europa, el riesgo de introducción del virus de la FA en Europa no es despreciable, como lo demuestran las distintas epidemias ocurridas en los últimos años.