Food Safety Authority Research Articles

Assessment of front and back of pack nutrition labels of selected convenience food products and snacks available in the Indian market.

Nutrition labels on packaged food items provide at-a-glance information about the nutritional composition of the food, serving as a quick guide for consumers to assess the quality of food products. The aim of the current study is to evaluate the nutritional information on the front and back of pack labels of selected packaged foods in the Indian market. A total of 432 food products in six categories (idli mix, breakfast cereals, porridge mix, soup mix, beverage mix and extruded snacks) were investigated by a survey. Nutritional profiling of the foods was done based on the Food Safety and Standards Authority of India (FSSAI) claims regulations. The healthiness of the packaged foods was assessed utilising nutritional traffic light system. The products were classified into 'healthy', 'moderately healthy' and 'less healthy' based on the fat, saturated fat, and sugar content. Most of the food products evaluated belong to healthy' and 'moderately healthy' categories except for products in extruded snacks. Reformulation of 'extruded snacks' are necessary to decrease the total and saturated fat content. The nutrient content claims were classified using the International Network for Food and Obesity / NCDs Research, Monitoring and Action Support (INFORMAS) taxonomy. Protein, dietary fibre, fat, sugar, vitamins and minerals were the most referred nutrients in the nutrient content claims. Breakfast cereal carried highest number of nutritional claims while porridge mix had the lowest number of claims. The overall compliance of the nutrient content claims for the studied food products is 80.5%. This study gives an overall view about the nutritional quality of the studied convenience food products and snacks in Indian market.

Revised safety evaluation of the food enzyme glucose oxidase from the genetically modified Trichoderma reesei strain AR-352.

The food enzyme glucose oxidase (β-d-glucose: oxygen 1-oxidoreductase; EC 1.1.3.4) is produced with the genetically modified Trichoderma reesei strain AR-352 by AB Enzymes GmbH. In a previous opinion, the Panel on Food Contact Materials, Enzymes and Processing Aids of the European Food Safety Authority could not conclude on the absence of recombinant DNA from the production strain in the food enzyme due to uncertainties about the limit of detection of the applied methodology. New data provided by the applicant showed that no DNA from the production strain was found in the food enzyme with a limit of detection meeting the requirements of the applicable guidance. Based on the new data provided, the Panel concludes that this food enzyme is free from recombinant DNA from the production strain.

Overall conclusions on the application for approval of Quassia amara L. wood as a basic substance to be used in plant protection as an insecticide and repellent in pome fruit, stone fruit, hop and ornamentals

Abstract The European Food Safety Authority (EFSA) was asked by the European Commission to provide scientific assistance with respect to the evaluation of applications received in accordance with Article 23 of Regulation (EC) No 1107/2009 concerning basic substances. This evaluation was requested by way of a specific mandate from the European Commission following the submission of an application for approval of Quassia amara L. wood as a basic substance to be used in plant protection as an insecticide and repellent in pome fruit, stone fruit, hop and ornamentals. This report summarises the outcome of the public and targeted consultations with Member States and EFSA, and presents EFSA's scientific views on the individual comments received including the overall conclusions with the main findings on the application.

Does EFSA statement on Monacolin content of nutraceutical combinations impair their lipid lowering effect? The LopiGLIK experience

BackgroundMonacolin-K, the active component of red yeast rice (RYR), reduces cholesterol by inhibiting HMG-CoA reductase. Following safety concerns, the European Food Safety Authority (EFSA) recommended limiting Monacolin-K intake to less than 3 mg/day due to adverse effects at higher doses.Case presentation: A study comparing Armolipid Plus® and LopiGLIK® found LopiGLIK® more effective in lowering LDL cholesterol, possibly due to slightly higher dosages of Berberine and Monacolin-K. Despite reducing Monacolin-K content to 2.99 mg following EFSA guidelines, LopiGLIK® maintained its cholesterol-lowering efficacy.ConclusionsTaken together, our results indicate that other ingredients, such as Morus alba, may contribute to LopiGLIK®’s enhanced effectiveness, challenging the notion that minor differences in Monacolin-K dosage account for the observed efficacy.

Occurrence of ochratoxins in coffee and risk assessment of ochratoxin a in a Costa Rican urban population

Costa Rica is a coffee producer and consumer country, but this product is prone to ochratoxin contamination; therefore, this study aims evaluates the human health risk associated with ochratoxin exposure among coffee consumers in the Costa Rica. Ochratoxin A (OTA) is a nephrotoxic compound classified as a Group 2B carcinogen, produced by the fungi Aspergillus section Circumdati, Aspergillus section Nigri and Penicillium spp. The presence of OTA and ochratoxin B (OTB) in Costa Rican coffee products (n = 175) was determined by HPLC with fluorescence detection. OTA was detected in 58.2% of the green coffee beans (1.01 ± 0.85 ng g −1), in 36.8% of the pure roasted coffee (2.59 ± 4.41 ng g −1), in 23.1% of the sugar-added roasted coffee (1.59 ± 0.33 ng g−1) and 75% of the instant coffee samples (0.69 ± 0.58 ng g−1). The contamination with OTB was 45.5% (1.28 ± 0.83 ng g −1), 31.6% (1.60 ± 2.04 ng g −1), 30.8% (1.42 ± 0.86 ng g −1), and 41.7% (2.64 ± 2.07 ng g −1), respectively. The dietary exposure to OTA of the Costa Rican population was assessed by a probabilistic approach. The mean estimated daily intake (EDI) of OTA from coffee was: 0.184 (90% IC: 0.179–0.189) ng kg−1 bw day−1 for the total population (0.189 [90% IC: 0.184–0.194] ng kg−1 bw day−1 for males and 0.181 [90% IC: 0.176–0.186] ng kg−1 bw day−1 for females). The EDIs were lower than the tolerable human intake benchmarks for OTA set by international food safety authorities (even though more than 80% of OTA is extracted during coffee preparation). The results evidence a low risk (related to ochratoxin) for coffee consumers in Costa Rica.

In-depth genomic identification and safety evaluation of Lactobacillus Acidophilus LA85

In vitro tests assessed heat tolerance, bile salt hydrolysis, intestinal adhesion, gastrointestinal environmental tolerance, hemolysis, gelatin hydrolysis, antibiotic sensitivity, inhibition of pathogenic bacteria, and toxicity of Lactobacillus acidophilus LA85. The safety of LA85 was verified by acute oral toxicity test. Genome analysis revealed no virulence, pathogenicity, or biogenic amine synthesis genes in LA85, but one drug resistance gene. LA85 displayed strong heat tolerance, intestinal adhesion, and gastrointestinal environment tolerance, with bile salt and gelatin hydrolysis abilities, and no hemolysis. It was sensitive to European Food Safety Authority proposed antibiotics, had inhibitory effects on common pathogenic bacteria, and both its fermentation broth and cells were non-toxic. Acute oral toxicity test confirmed that LA85 (2 × 1010 CFU/kg) was safe and non-toxic in mice. The safety evaluation presented in this paper firmly establishes LA85 as a safe and effective probiotic candidate for use in a wide range of food and medical applications.

Comparison of urinary exposure profiles to phthalates and bisphenol analogues in kindergartens in Korea: Impact of environmental choices on children’s health

Phthalates and bisphenols (BPs) are well-known endocrine disrupting chemicals (EDCs) that are widely used in diverse consumer and personal care products. Despite their vulnerability, children are frequently exposed to phthalates and BPs in their surrounding environments. Although pre-school children spend most of their time in kindergarten, no comprehensive assessment of children’ exposure to EDCs has been conducted according to the type of kindergarten. In this study, the urinary concentrations of phthalate metabolites and BPs were determined in Korean children attending conventional and eco-friendly kindergartens. The exposure levels and contaminant profiles were investigated according to kindergarten type and their association with oxidative stress was assessed. Di-(2-ethylhexyl) phthalate (DEHP) metabolites, such as mono-(2-ethyl-5-carboxypentyl) phthalate (median: 47.1 ng/mL) and mono-[(2-carboxymethyl)hexyl] phthalate (8.45 ng/mL) had the highest levels, indicating that they were the primary contaminants to which the children were exposed. Urinary concentrations of phthalate metabolites and bisphenol A (BPA) were higher in children from conventional kindergarten than an eco-friendly kindergarten. Conversely, bisphenol S (BPS) concentrations were significantly higher in children from the eco-friendly kindergarten than in those from conventional kindergartens, implying that eco-friendly plastic products might contain BPS as a replacement for BPA. The estimated daily intakes of BPA for all children exceeded the new tolerable daily intake proposed by the European Food Safety Authority. Malondialdehyde levels were significantly associated with the urinary concentrations of certain phthalate metabolites, indicating potential adverse health outcomes from phthalate exposure in children. The study highlights the need for targeted interventions to reduce EDC exposure in children, especially in settings where alternative chemicals may still pose health risks.

Investigation of PAEs in some dairy products (yogurt and kashk) using method of MSPE-GC/MS: a health risk assessment study.

In this study, MSPE-GC/MS method (magnetic solid phase extraction-gas chromatography/mass spectrometry) was applied to analyze six PAEs in yogurt and kashk samples. According to our findings, in all samples, the mean of Bis (2-ethylhexyl)phthalate (DEHP) was 2.00 ± 0.87, and the mean total PAEs was 8.33 ± 2.26 µg/kg, which the mean of all phthalates was less than the existing standards (EFSA (The European Food Safety Authority) and US EPA (U.S. Environmental Protection Agency)). Also, the mean of DEHP and total PAEs in kashk samples were 2.43 ± 1.02 and 10.07 ± 1.06 µg/kg, respectively, and in yogurt samples were 1.57 ± 0.36 and 6.59 ± 1.26 µg/kg, respectively. Furthermore, the mean of total PAEs at the time of expiration date (9.09 ± 2.36 µg/kg) was higher than the production date (7.57 ± 1.92 µg/kg), and the samples with a higher volume of the container had a higher amount of total PAEs (8.88 ± 2.48 µg/kg) than the samples with a smaller volume of the container (7.78 ± 1.92 µg/kg). Various indices (CDI (chronic daily intake), THQ (target hazard quotient), and ILCR (incremental lifetime cancer risk)) were applied to estimate risks of human health. Likewise, the technique of Monte Carlo was employed for probabilistic non-carcinogenic and carcinogenic risk assessment via oral exposure in adults and children. The CDI of PAEs detected via yogurt and kashk consumption was less than the tolerable daily intake. Eventually, a probabilistic model with Monte Carlo simulation showed that the THQ and the ILCR were far less than the unacceptable risk (1 > THQ and 10-6 > ILCR). Finally, according to the results obtained, it can be concluded the consumption of yogurt and kashk does not pose any threat to Iranian consumers (children and adults).

Critical appraisal of the Expert Knowledge Elicitation (EKE) methodology to identify uncertainties in building cumulative assessment groups for craniofacial alterations

The European Food Safety Authority (EFSA) conducted a retrospective cumulative dietary risk assessment (CRA) on active substances (AS) and metabolites included in the plant protection products registered in Europe which could provoke craniofacial alterations. Two Cumulative Assessment groups (CAGs) were established: one for alterations due to abnormal skeletal development (CAG-DAC) and one for head soft tissue alterations and brain neural tube defects (CAG-DAH).The probability that each substance is correctly assigned to the specific CAGs (CAG-membership probability) was assessed using weight of evidence and expert knowledge elicitation (EKE) techniques conducted for the six substances identified as risk drivers in each CAG. Four out of the six substances allocated to the CAG-DAC or to the CAG-DAH presented a large interval of uncertainty, with probability of belonging to the attributed CAG between 10 to 70% or 33 to 90%, which makes it difficult to determine if the substances truly belong to the CAG.In the present work the probability ranges of each risk driver were reassigned according to the approximate probability scale recommended in the EFSA guidance on uncertainty analysis. It is proposed that AS with a high probability are to be included in the CAG and those with a low probability removed from the CAG. For compounds with very large probability ranges, uncertainty assessments would have to be redone to reach narrower probability ranges. Finally, whenever recent decisions on reproduction toxicity classifications made by the European Chemical Agency (ECHA) are available, these should be used to conclude on CAG memberships.

Polyphenols in Human Nutrition: European Regulations and Potential Classification as a Novel Food or Food Additive.

Polyphenols are widely present in botanicals and are partially responsible for the health benefits associated with plant-based diets. Due to their nutritional and health-promoting properties, polyphenols are increasingly being proposed as innovative food ingredients, whether for technological applications or for inclusion in food supplements and other food products to enhance health. However, the regulatory considerations surrounding the use of polyphenols in human nutrition are critical. Although polyphenols are routinely consumed through fruits and vegetables, in Europe, polyphenols and plant extracts can be classified as novel foods or food additives. The scientific evaluation conducted by the European Food Safety Authority (EFSA) to obtain the necessary authorizations is stringent, requiring a substantial level of evidence to ensure the safe use of polyphenols. This work aims to provide an overview of the current European regulatory frameworks for novel foods and food additives and to discuss the scientific requirements for the approval of pure polyphenols and polyphenol-rich botanical extracts in Europe.

Public Health Implications of Pesticide Residues in Food: Risks, Regulations, and Interventions

Pesticides enter food primarily through direct application to crops during farming, where residues can remain on the surface or be absorbed into plant tissues. Additionally, pesticide drift from nearby treated areas and contamination of soil or water used for irrigation can introduce residues into food crops, further increasing the risk of exposure. This paper focuses on the public health implications of pesticide residues in food. The paper found that pesticide residues in food pose significant public health challenges, with potential risks ranging from acute toxicity to chronic health issues such as cancer, endocrine disruption, and neurological disorders. Vulnerable populations, including children, pregnant women, and the elderly, are particularly at risk. Effective regulation and monitoring become crucial as the agricultural sector relies heavily on pesticides for crop protection. Regulatory bodies such as the World Health Organization (WHO), Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations (FAO), Environmental Protection Agency (EPA), and European Food Safety Authority (EFSA) play crucial roles in setting Maximum Residue Limits (MRLs) to ensure food safety. However, implementing these regulations faces obstacles, particularly in developing countries, where resource constraints, lack of technical expertise, and socio-economic factors impede effective monitoring. Integrating pest management (IPM), advanced monitoring techniques and consumer education are essential to mitigate the risks posed by pesticide residues. The global harmonization of pesticide standards and continued research into safer alternatives and residue detection methods are critical for ensuring a secure food supply. As agricultural practices evolve, a multi-stakeholder approach involving policymakers, farmers, and consumers will be vital in reducing pesticide exposure and safeguarding public health.

Exposure Scenarios for Estimating Contaminant Levels in Healthy Sustainable Dietary Models: Omnivorous vs. Vegetarian.

Consumers are regularly exposed to well-known food contaminants (FCs), which are typically assessed for risk on an individual basis. However, there is limited knowledge about the overall levels and combinations of these compounds depending on dietary choices. The goal of this study was to estimate the real-life mixtures of FCs in different dietary models by integrating extensive data from the scientific literature concerning the reliable quantification of FCs in foods. A FAIR database detailing the occurrence of 73 FCs in 16 foods commonly consumed was built. The data were integrated into an omnivorous and a vegetarian dietary model. A weighted estimate of the 25th, 50th, and 75th percentiles of FCs in both dietary models revealed that the omnivorous model presented slightly higher levels of FCs than the vegetarian. At the 25th percentile, the FC levels in both dietary models fall within the European Food Safety Authority (EFSA) reference exposure levels for chemical hazards, except for arsenic, lead, cadmium, fumonisin B1, and OTA. At the 75th percentile, the FC levels exceed the EFSA reference levels for those FCs and additional mycotoxins. Using in vitro models, the 25th percentile can mimic real-life FC exposure, while the 75th percentile simulates a possible worst-case scenario.

Ergot alkaloids: comparison of extraction efficiencies for their monitoring in several cereal-solvent combinations by UPLC-MS/MS.

To date, there are more than 80 ergot alkaloids identified; their distribution depends on different factors (e.g. geographic regions, host plants). These toxins can cause acute and chronic toxic effects on human health and commonly infect cereal crops such as triticale and rye, wheat, barley and oats. Considering the growing consumption of plant-based foods, the European Food Safety Authority has highlighted the need to develop risk assessment strategies. This work focused on the optimization of extraction efficiency, to quantify the main ergot alkaloids and their epimers, that are available on the market without any legal restriction (ergosine, ergocristine, ergocriptyne, ergocornine, ergosinine, ergocristinine, ergocriptinine and ergocorninine). Considering the quantification of 8 out of 12 regulated compounds by EU (sum of -ine and -inine forms), this approach can be defined as a screening method for a reliable estimation of the risk, specifically devoted to industrial stakeholders that can then possibly outsource to authorized external labs only the samples suspected of significant positivity. The effectiveness of three different extraction conditions (acidic, alkaline and neutral) followed by a rapid clean-up using dispersive solid-phase extraction with C18 sorbent was evaluated by ultra-performance liquid chromatography tandem quadrupole mass spectrometry (UPLC-MS/MS), resulting in a short chromatographic run (16min). The method was developed and validated in five different cereal production chains (rye, oat, wheat, wheat gluten and baby food). The applicability of the method was examined by analyzing a set of 54 samples, including also other cereals like spelt, tritordeum and triticale, and evaluating also some reference materials.

A ratiometric and colorimetric dual-mode fluorescence method for the sensitive determination of copper ion

The present work describes the fabrication of a low-cost, simple, and highly selective analytical method based on the combination of two fluorescent carbon quantum dots (CQDs) for visual or quantitative detection of copper ions at trace levels. Folium cycas and o-phenylenediamine are used as carbon precursors for the preparation of blue fluorescence CQDs (B-CQDs) and yellow fluorescence CQDs (Y-CQDs), respectively. The dual emission ratio fluorescence sensor (B@Y-CQDs), which is obtained through a physical blending method, demonstrates the dual-mode detection of copper ions, including colorimetric detection (visual detection) and ratiometric detection (quantitative detection). Our study reports a portable fluorescent paper sensing platform based on smartphones and computer software that can visually quantify Cu2+ without the need for expensive and bulky laboratory instruments. Upon addition of Cu2+, the simple B@Y-CQDs solution or B@Y-CQDs modified paper-based strip shows a visible color change from blue to yellow under 365 nm ultraviolet light, which achieves visual detection coupled with computer software and smartphones. For the accurate quantitative detection of trace Cu2+, the changes in the fluorescence intensity ratio of F450/550 are recorded, in which B@Y-CQDs exhibited remarkable selectivity and sensitivity, with a low limit of detection (0.73 μM) within the linear ranges of 7–15 μM. The applicability of the sensor is explored by the successful detection of Cu2+ in tap water and rice samples. These results provide a novel strategy for the quantitative and visual detection of various metal ions and hold significant potential for applications in food safety assurance and water pollution control.

Towards a comprehensive methodology for ecotoxicological assessment: Prioritizing plant protection products for mixture testing in edge-of-field surface waterbodies

Pesticide applications in agriculture result in complex mixtures of Plant Protection Products (PPPs) in the environment. The ecotoxicological effects of these mixtures can occur at concentrations considered safe for individual chemicals, indicating potential risks underestimated by current regulatory assessments focused on individual active ingredients. To address this challenge, our study introduces a methodology for identifying priority PPPs for formulating mixtures, enabling further ecotoxicological testing in water and sediment compartments of edge-of-field surface water bodies, targeting pelagic and benthic organisms. This methodology was primarily based on the actual quantification of PPPs present in these compartments from selected case study sites (CSSs) in Europe and Argentina (11 and 4 for water and sediments, respectively). A conceptual framework was developed that discriminates and selects concerning PPPs based on their individual risk quotient and frequency of occurrence in each CSS, drawing upon two EU regulatory risk assessment approaches, i.e., the general approach under REACH for any environmental contaminant of concern – the European Chemicals Agency (ECHA) approach; and that specifically focusing on PPPs – the European Food Safety Authority (EFSA) approach. Irrespective of whether the focus is on water or sediments, the study revealed disparities in PPP rankings depending on the approach used to identify PPPs of concern, with the ECHA approach being more conservative than the EFSA approach. Despite this, the EFSA approach follows a more standardized assessment factor definition strategy, potentially allowing avoidance of risk overestimation, as well as resulting in a more balanced representation of different PPP classes for subsequent mixtures testing. Overall, the methodological development reported herein, along with the inconsistencies found when comparing different regulatory approaches to assess the risk of environmental contaminants, highlight the need for further discussion on the most appropriate directions towards the standardization of the regulatory risk assessment of PPP mixtures.

Endocrine-disrupting chemicals – pesticide regulatory issues from the EU perspective

Endocrine-disrupting chemicals (EDCs), including substances used in plant protection products (PPPs), are a source of ongoing concern for the EU society. Under the EC Regulation 1107/2009, the endocrine-disrupting (ED) properties of active substances, safeners, and synergists used in PPPs shall be investigated. The scientific criteria established by the Regulation (EU) 2018/605 and the joint guidance of the European Chemicals Agency (ECHA)/European Food Safety Authority (EFSA) provide the basis for this assessment. Data requirements for the approval of safeners and synergists have been recently published in Commission Regulation (EU) 2024/1487, allowing a consistent assessment of these substances. The approach to assessing co-formulant hazards is currently a subject of EU-wide discussion. It outlines the necessity to take into account information or evaluation data from other than pesticides' EU regulatory frameworks, such as REACH or SCCS applications for cosmetic ingredients. This paper outlines: a) current EU approach applied for identification of endocrine disrupting properties of pesticides; b) issues related to European regulations that may have an indirect impact on the safe use of plant protection products and c) an analysis of the European Commission's activities aimed to limit exposure to EDCs associated with use of PPPs in the society.

Non-dioxin-like polychlorinated biphenyls (NDL-PCBs) dietary exposure is associated with an increased risk of type 2 diabetes in the European prospective investigation into cancer and nutrition (EPIC) cohort

Aims/hypothesisThe aim of the present study was to investigate the association between dietary exposures to dioxins, dioxin-like polychlorinated biphenyls (DL-PCBs) and non-dioxin-like polychlorinated biphenyls (NDL-PCBs) and the incidence of type 2 diabetes mellitus (T2DM) in the European Prospective Investigation into Cancer and Nutrition (EPIC) cohort. MethodsThis prospective cohort study with a median 11.7 years of follow-up, included 318,416 individuals recruited in 21 centers in eight countries. Dietary intake of dioxins and PCBs was calculated by combining EPIC food consumption data with food contamination data from the European Food Safety Authority (EFSA). To identify incident cases of T2DM, a thorough review of various sources including self-reported information, linkage to primary and secondary care registers, drug registers, hospital admissions, and mortality data was conducted. Associations between dietary intake of dioxins and PCBs and T2DM were evaluated using multivariable Cox regressions. ResultsHigher T2DM risk was observed for higher estimated dietary intake of non-dioxin-like PCBs (NDL-PCBs; HR per 1 SD increment = 1.03 [95 %CI 1.01;1.04], and HR (Q4vs Q1) = 1.15 [1.08;1.22], P-trend < 0.001). The results were consistent in analyses stratified by gender, body mass index, country, median follow-up, or self-reported hypertension and hyperlipidemia, as well as when adjusting for fat intake. No consistent association was observed between dioxins+DL-PCBs intake and T2DM risk. Conclusion / interpretationResults obtained in this large European prospective study indicate a positive and linear association between dietary intake of NDL-PCBs and risk of T2DM. This association remained consistent across various stratified and sensitivity analyses. Further studies are warranted to better understand the biological mechanisms underlying this association.

Peer review of the pesticide risk assessment of the active substance gibberellic acid (GA3).

The conclusions of the European Food Safety Authority (EFSA) following the peer review of the initial risk assessments carried out by the competent authorities of the rapporteur Member State Slovenia and co-rapporteur Member State Slovakia for the pesticide active substance gibberellic acid and the considerations as regards the inclusion of the substance in Annex IV of Regulation (EC) No 396/2005 are reported. The context of the peer review was that required by Commission Implementing Regulation (EU) No 844/2012, as amended by Commission Implementing Regulation (EU) No 2018/1659. The conclusions were reached on the basis of the evaluation of the representative use of gibberellic acid as a plant growth regulator on seedless grapes (field use). The reliable end points, appropriate for use in regulatory risk assessment, are presented. Missing information identified as being required by the regulatory framework is listed. Concerns are reported when identified.

Dairy and nondairy proteins as nano-architecture structures for delivering phenolic compounds: Unraveling their molecular interactions to maximize health benefits.

Phenolic compounds are recognized for their benefits against degenerative diseases. Clinical and nutritional applications are limited by their low solubility, stability, and bioavailability, compromising their efficacy. Natural macromolecules, such as lipids, polysaccharides, and proteins, employed as delivery systems can efficiently overcome these limitations. In this sense, proteins are attractive due to their biocompatibility and dynamic structure properties, functional adaptability and self-assembly capabilities, offering stability, efficient encapsulation, and controlled release. This review explores the potential use of dairy proteins, caseins, and whey proteins, and, alternatively, nondairy proteins, gelatin, human serum albumin, maize zein, and soybean proteins, in building wall materials for the delivery of phenolic compounds. To optimize performance, aspects, such as protein-phenolic affinity and complex stability/activity, should be considered when designing particle nano-architecture. Molecular interactions between protein-phenolic compound complexes are, thus, further discussed, as well as the effects of temperature and pH and strategies to stabilize and preserve nano-architecture and retain phenolic compound activity. All proteins harbor one or more putative binding sites, shared or not, depending on the phenolic compound. Preservation techniques are still a case-to-case study, as no behavior patterns among different complexes are noted. Safety aspects necessary for the marketing of nanoproducts, such as characterization, toxicity assessments, and post-market monitoring as defined by the European Food Safety Authority and the Food and Drug Administration, are discussed, evidencing the need for a unified regulation. This review broadens our understanding and opens new opportunities for the development of novel protein-based nanocarriers to obtain more effective and stable products, enhancing phenolic compound delivery and health benefits.

Per- and polyfluoroalkyl substances (PFAS) Accumulation in Fish Occupying Different Trophic Positions from East Canyon Creek, a Seasonally Effluent-Dominated River, Utah, USA

Fish and seafood are considered a major source of human dietary exposure to per- and polyfluoroalkyl substances (PFAS). In this study, we examined levels of 35 PFAS in fish samples of brown trout and mottled sculpin, which occupy different trophic positions, collected in 2014 from East Canyon Creek in Utah, USA. We observed 20 PFAS with ∑20PFAS ranging from 0.46-63.9 ng/g and from <LOQ-52.1 ng/g wet weight in sculpin and brown trout, respectively. Among detected compounds, PFOS was measured at highest levels ranging 3.8 - 46.5 ng/g in sculpin, which occupies a lower trophic level, and 2.5 - 38.4 ng/g in brown trout, which occupies a higher trophic position. The most frequently detected PFAS were PFDA and FOSA, and these contaminants were found in 93% and 81% of fish samples; however, we did not identify appreciable PFAS biomagnification. To evaluate potential risk associated with consumption of fish, we calculated risk-based consumption limits using European Food Safety Authority (EFSA) regulated values of maximum levels (MLs) and total weekly intake for four regulated PFAS: PFOA, PFNA, PFHxS, and PFOS. The levels of regulated PFAS exceeded at least one of the MLs in 74% of sculpin samples and 45% of brown trout samples. Based on calculated weekly intake for the sum of the four regulated PFAS, a typical adult would need to consume 4.2 and 5.6 meals per week of whole body sculpin and brown trout, respectively, to reach the TWI of 4.4 ng/kg body weight per week set by EFSA.