Folk Religion Research Articles

Physician Kitasato Shibasaburō: Achievements and posthumous veneration in Shintō

In 2024, the medical community celebrates an important date – 130 years since the discovery of the causative agent of plague, which was independently isolated by the Japanese physician Kitasato Shibasaburō (1853–1931) and the French physician Alexandre Yersin (1863–1943). Although the former had done so a few days earlier, as a result of misunderstanding and forgery, the honor of the discovery was given to A. Yersin, and the genus to which the bacterium is assigned is named in his honor. As it happened, Kitasato is almost unknown in European science, and some of his achievements are attributed to other researchers. In this article, for the first time in the Russian-language scientific literature, his life and achievements are discussed in detail. The outstanding physician isolated a pure culture of Clostridium tetani, was the first in the world to propose serum therapy, isolated Yersinia pestis, educated a galaxy of outstanding physicians and was one of the founders of modern Japanese public health (state sanitary and epidemiological supervision), preventing the establishment of plague in the Japanese islands. His services to Japanese and world medicine are truly immense. No less interesting is his posthumous veneration in Shinto, which was combined with the veneration of the German physician Robert Koch (1843–1910), a teacher and senior friend of Kitasato Shibasaburō. The deification of scientists is an extraordinary practice and represents a significant cultural phenomenon. It should be noted, however, that the cult of Koch-Kitasato is local and actually confined to the Kitasato Institute, where scholars are honored as patrons of the Institute. Interestingly, the other discoverer of the plague microbe, Alexandre Yersin, is deified within Vietnamese Mahayana Buddhism and as a god-patron (thành hoàng) within Vietnamese folk religion, which paradoxically unites the posthumous fate of these scientists.

Spatiotemporal topology of religious spread in a multi‐religious metropolis: A historical religious profile of Taipei City in Taiwan from 1660 to 2020

AbstractReligious identities play an important role in shaping migrants' experiences. Understanding the spatiotemporal distribution of religions enhances our knowledge of both religious expansion and religious cultures. This paper aims to leverage spatiotemporal analysis to characterise the topology of the spread of multiple religions in the Taipei metropolitan area from 1660 to 2020, including Folk Taoism (853 temples/altars, 55.39%), Christianity (306 churches, 19.87%) and Buddhism (332 temples, 21.56%). Three major factors affecting religious distribution are considered: the year of establishment of religious units (churches, temples or altars), the reclamation year of religious locations, and the economic index of religious sites. The results show that Folk Taoism and Buddhism have a long history of development in early reclamation regions with a hopping expansion pattern. However, Christianity expanded later in the later reclaimed and early reclaimed areas. The Christian religious units have highly concentrated spatial patterns and are located in the higher‐income districts, centralised in the core regions of the Taipei metropolis. Modern forms of highly institutionalised religion, such as Buddhism and Christianity, are more prevalent in the relatively higher‐income, later‐cultivated areas, which provide richer social resources for development. Folk Taoism, as a traditional religion, is maintained and developed by local communities. This macroscopic analysis helps to (1) identify the exact chronology of different growth waves and explain them in a historical context, and (2) elucidate the spatial distribution differences between institutionalised religions and folk religion. Our research shows the evolution of religious landscapes from an undeveloped city to a developed city, offering valuable insights for geographical and religious studies, and enhancing understanding of diffused and institutionalised religious expansion.

Protestantism in Korea: from Banning Christianity to the Largest Megachurch in the World

This article examines Protestantism in Korea and the role of Protestantism in public life. The reasons for the success of Christian mission are analyzed, as well as peculiarities of Korean Protestantism in the international Christian movement. The development of Protestantism is shown as a holistic phenomenon in relationship with Catholicism and Buddhism. In addition to domestic and foreign historiography, official sources of statistical information are used. The activities of Protestant missionary organizations, the country's religious policy and the involvement of Protestant organizations in political activity are studied. Mega-churches and their role in Korean Protestantism have also been studied. The study revealed that the main reason for the strong expansion of Protestantism in the postwar period was due to both U.S. influence in postwar Korea and the «anti-superstition» policy. After independence, the majority practised folk religions and the state encouraged their conversion to Christianity or Buddhism. Today, Protestants constitute 20 percent of Korea's population, Buddhists 16 percent, and Catholics 8 percent. Mega-churches have become widespread; the Yoido Full Gospel Church is the largest church in the world, attended by half a million people. A peculiarity of Korea is the large number of missions sent abroad – the country is second only to the United States in the number of Protestant missionaries. It is concluded that Christianity will remain the most numerous religion in the country. At the same time, the influence of religious systems will diminish and individual religiosity will come first.

Cross-disciplinary perspectives on Nuo opera: bridging the gap between art, culture, and society in Guizhou

One of the most popular folk operas in China is the Nuo opera. Nuo opera, which is distinguished by its distinct elements such as vicious masks, peculiar clothing and jewelry, peculiar language spoken during performances, and enigmatic scenarios, has been named one of China's intangible cultural legacies. The opera is a religious act that is fundamental to the Chinese folk religion known as Nuoism. Nuo opera is performed to ward off evil spirits, illnesses, and other influences. It also serves as a prayer request to the gods for favors. Nuo opera features singing and dancing, as well as masks and costumes for the performers. This research explores Nuo opera, a traditional performance art form that is deeply established in the cultural and social structure of Guizhou using a cross-disciplinary technique that unites art and culture. Sociocultural influence, the study examines how, in a setting that is changing quickly, Nuo Opera acts as an interface for social unity and cultural continuity. The distinct features that this culture exhibits, together with the numerous benefits that the society's sustained growth has brought subsequent such as cultural, social, and economic values, among other significant elements. This study emphasizes interdisciplinary analysis, and its goals are to improve our understanding of the cultural value of Nuo Opera and provide useful insights for ensuring its persistent presence and significance in Guizhou society.

Albion as a role model

Folklore, Ethnology, Folk Religion, Scottish history, Ferenc Baranth, Albion, Scottish music, Scottish song, Calvinism, Church of Scotland, Hungary, Anglo-Saxon, Germany, Edinburgh, education, Protestantism, humour, Dean Ramsay

Christian Elements and Their Folk Adaptations in the Funeral and Memorial Rites of the Ludian Karelians

Abstract The article* focuses on an analysis of the funeral and memorial rituals of the Ludian Karelians in the context of folk religion. For many years, rites of Orthodox origin were either viewed unilaterally or ignored altogether in ethnographic literature, with the reconstruction of ‘pagan’ elements being highlighted, which in turn gave rise to the theory of dual faith. According to the results of my research, the funeral and memorial traditions of the Ludians (from the late 19th to the late 20th century) are based on an Orthodox funeral system in which many aspects derived from a Christian basis found new interpretation. For example, the requirement to light candles was explained as lighting the way to the afterlife, the importance of making confession was so that the dying person’s sins would not attach to the living, and funeral services were to help the soul of the deceased ‘settle’, etc. The principal exponents of the funeral rituals, who ensured the successful transition of the soul to the next world, were representatives of the people: women who washed the body of the deceased, and lamenters, but the church priesthood nonetheless played a significant role in conducting the rituals. The priest’s participation is apparent at all stages of the funeral ritual, from confession to commemoration. Following the abolition of the institution of the church during the Soviet period, the functions of the priest were assumed by elderly women who knew the prayers and church burial traditions.

The Sanctification of the Disabled: A Study on the Images of Fortune Gods in Japanese Folk Beliefs

Similarly to China, Japan has a long history of worshiping fortune gods. The act of making offerings and praying to these deities has been practiced since ancient times. Fortune gods are figures in Japanese folk religion that are believed to bring happiness, hope, and good luck. When speaking of fortune gods in Japan, people will first think of the Seven Lucky Gods. Apart from them, there are also some local fortune gods such as Fukusuke and Sendai Shiro. These gods share some common traits and also have connections with the Japanese folk belief in Fukuko (fortune child). This study adopts a comparative methodology to compare Japan’s Seven Lucky Gods with the local Japanese fortune gods as well as Fukuko, and then analyze their similarities. This article argues that the Japanese fortune gods have two major common characteristics: the super power to bring good fortune, and their distinctive appearance. By systematically analyzing the common features of Japanese fortune gods, this study will clarify the mechanism behind their deification as fortune deities and also help us to gain a better insight into the Japanese conceptions of deities and spirits.

Chinese Exceptionalism? Folk Religions and Subjective Well-being

Folk religions are reviving in contemporary China. They are distinctive from institutionalized religions and share many qualities with the emerging religious phenomena in the West. Despite their significance, however, the lack of concise frameworks and causal analysis methods has hindered a deeper understanding of these religions. By integrating psychological and sociocultural perspectives, this study concentrates on subjective well-being and tailors a micro model applicable to analyzing Chinese folk religions, along with a novel instrumental variable for causal identification. Empirical evidence suggests that folk religions have negative effects on subjective well-being, resulting in a 17.3 percent decrease in subjective well-being compared to the sample mean. This is primarily due to believers seeing folk religions as mere means for achieving earthly targets, therefore suffering from strengthened negative senses and motivated radical behaviors. Nevertheless, investing in folk religions to a high degree might transform believers’ attitudes from seeing folk religions as means to seeing them as ends, thereby alleviating the negativity. This alleviation is mainly derived from positive senses, self-regulation, and inclusive attitudes towards society. Hence, taking religions more seriously and not utilitarianly, or fulfilling unmet targets more effectively, are two paths to eliminate the negative effects.

“Gods Feast on Holy Smoke, Not Tear Gas!”

This article highlights the neglected political participation of Daoism, Buddhism, and Chinese folk religions in Hong Kong in recent years, focusing on how local communities creatively engage with three deities in particular, namely Wong Tai Sin 黃大仙, Kwan Kung 關公, and Che Kung 車公. Building on C. K. Yang's classic theories of diffused religion, it demonstrates how grassroots religions are diffused with political activism in Hong Kong as an example of what the political scientist and anthropologist James C. Scott refers to as “infrapolitics.” These three iconic deities of diffused religions have most famously become protest symbols with creativity, humor, and satire, in contrast with a secular China as well as the official portrayal of the violence of the protest. The transformation of these local deities from tourist attractions to protest symbols epitomizes Hong Kong's emerging identity through the celebration of its own guardian gods and their divine protection. This creative diffusion of grassroots religions as infrapolitics is central to the protesting city's moral landscape and sense of belonging.

Chathi Mai in Popular Imagination: Exploring Narratives, Worship, and Rituals in North India

This paper explores the varied narratives surrounding Chathi Mai, which do not find a mention in the normative texts. These narratives showcase the blending of religious beliefs with regional traditions in the imagination of her worshippers. Focusing on Kartika Chatha specifically, the study delves into the narratives that depict the Goddess as a healer, protector, and feminine energy tied to the Sun. Our fieldwork in Varanasi, Patna, Munger, and Sahibganj reveals diverse origin stories, showcasing the cultural mosaic of regions venerating her. The research comprehensively examines the evolutionary trajectory of Chathi Mai’s worship, emphasizing the synthesis of mythological elements and local folklore. Three key facets—the manifestation of feminine energy, the significance of the title “Mai,” and the complementary relationship between male and female principles—are explored to provide a nuanced understanding of the Goddess’s multifaceted identity in North India. The absence of normative texts enhances grassroots adaptability, allowing for localized interpretations in the popular imagination of the Goddess. Associations with the Sun god Surya and the continuity of divine male-female dynamics provide varied entry points for believers, enabling emotional connections and familial devotion. The duality of malevolence and benevolence adds complexity, making worship dynamic and responsive to challenges. Linking Chatthi Mai to Bihar’s regional identity integrates the tradition into daily life, promoting a sense of belonging. The evolving narratives contribute to the deity’s adaptability, relevance, and popularity, with potential for further research exploring folk religions’ adaptation to societal changes and the impact of evolving narratives on community dynamics.

Popular Catholicism Puerto Rican Style: The Virgin of Rincón, Human Agency, and Miracles

In the past, popular Catholicism in Latin America and the Caribbean was perceived with suspicion by liberation theologians and official Roman Catholicism for its eccentricities, lack of doctrinal coherence, and fears of syncretism with folk religions. Nowadays, popular Catholicism in Latin America and the Caribbean has been a source of theological reflection, ecumenism, and religious revitalization. The apparition of the Holy Mother in 1953 at barrio Rincón in Sabana Grande, Puerto Rico, is a case study in global Catholicism that exemplifies this turn to see popular Catholicism as a source of liberation, perseverance, and deep spiritual devotion by the faithful. Using cultural, social, and reception historiography, the article argues that the Puerto Rican faithful were not passive recipients of the literary narratives of journalists covering the events as narrated by the main protagonists, the children/seers, but rather themselves formulators of history through their reception and participation. This is demonstrated by the allegiances of the faithful to popular Catholicism and their rejection of the official mandates of the clergy to ignore the events taking place at barrio Rincón regarding the apparition of the Virgin.

Folk religion as the “life-world”: revival of folk beliefs and renewal of religious categorization in contemporary China

Religious studies in the past paid more attention to the changes of institutional religion than to the status characteristic of folk beliefs. This paper argues that religious categorization based on institutional religion is not conducive to understanding the cultural and religious life of Chinese society, but rather leads to the stigmatization of folk religion and the reduction of the life-world. From this perspective, the historical development of folk religion affects the relationship between national elites, institutionalized religion, and civil society. Folk religion can be foregrounded and exerts great impact on the rise and fall of institutional religion. The folk religion revival in contemporary China and the development of related studies also promote the renewal of religious categorization. The revival of folk religion in the new millennium can consequently facilitate social integration and provide new possibilities for overcoming institutional religion’s exclusiveness and for increasing the cultural diversity of Chinese society.

A GLANCE AT THE ROLE OF FOLK RELIGION FOR THE DEVELOPMENT OF PEOPLE

When religion is an inseparable aspect of the social and cultural life of people, it must be appropriated into the development framework to ensure their well-being, harmonious life, and sustainability. Keeping away from the rationalistic perspective on religion as well as the negative aspects of the creation of conflicts and tension, this study tries to look at religion as having the potential to address various problems associated with development in its broadest terms. Particularly, this article focuses on the role, nature and vitality of folk religion and its relevance for the implementation of development initiatives for the well-being of different communities. It highlights the fact that as everyday village life is shaped by their perception and worldview shaped by their religious ideas and practices and also encumbered with their religious experiences at individual and collective levels, the relationship between the uncodified folk religion and the social, cultural and economic development of community the development could be undoubtedly explored.

Hand of the 42-armed Avalokiteśvara Holding A Skull Rod.

The skull most commonly symbolizes death, mortality, and the unachievable nature of immortality. However, in Korean Buddhist art, skulls are rarely found. The aim of this study was to explore the image and meaning of the skull in the Joseon dynasty (1392 to 1910) of Korea. The terms [Buddhist] and [painting] and [Korea] were used to search Google (www.google.com), and the Research Information Sharing Service of Korea (https://www-riss-kr-ssl.openlink), was also searched for [Buddhism] () and [art] () and [skull] (). This study focused on paintings or statues of Avalokiteśvara because Avalokiteśvara was often depicted holding various items in the hands, especially the multiarmed Avalokiteśvara. The corresponding Buddhist texts were searched on "Archives of Buddhist Culture" (http://kabc.dongguk.edu). In the paintings and statues of the 42-armed Sahasra-bhuja Avalokiteśvara, one of the hands was holding a skull rod. In the royal version of the "Five Great Dhārāṇis Collection ()," which was published in 1458, a skull was found in a rod held by a 42-armed Avalokiteśvara. This corresponds to one of the verses of the "42-Hand Mantras" (Om dhuna vajra ha). The purpose of the mantra was to communicate with and manipulate ghosts. The meaning in the original Susiddhikara Sutra is quite different from the 42-Hand Mantras in the Joseon dynasty of Korea. The reason for this difference is thought to be the merger of esoteric Buddhism with the folk religions of China and Korea.

Заповедные места в дискурсах сакральной географии

The paper explores the phenomenon of sanctuaries from the perspective of religious semiotics. The authors have identified the ambivalence of the perception of a mystical place by folk religion: a mystical place can be simultaneously perceived both as a topos in which ritual is performed, and as an object of worship. At the same time, stable ritualogemes of veneration of mystical places are developed, forming elaborate ritual complexes. Analysis of the mytho-semiotic specificity of narratives about sanctuaries made it possible to propose their typology: places of power, mysterious places, places of refuge, places metonymically associated with special religiously significant events. Specal areas that are dangerous and harmful to humans are considered separately. The study includes analyzing of basic mytheologems that form the discourse of sacred geography. It has been proven that the narrative about sanctuaries is not only formed as a result of the functioning of the mechanisms of mythological hermeneutics characteristic of folk religiosity, but also turns out to be capable of generating new mythological plots. At the same time, a religious studies analysis of the specifics of sacred sites revealed the impossibility of their unambiguous confessional identification due to the presence of syncretic mythologemes in their interpretation. Stories about visiting sacred places and the experiences of various events and states associated with these visits are actively mythologized and become sources for the generating of new semantics and semiotics of sacred geography.

An Investigative Study of Modern Social Attitudes towards the Current Status of Religious Beliefs Associated with the Concept of Shiva (A Study of Selected Major Shiva Temples in Sri Lanka)

Folktales can be recognized as an Ancient Intangible Heritage of the entire Human race. Since time immemorial, man has become a pyramid of collective wisdom built through the practice of systematic thinking. Folk religion, which is a major part of folk culture, can be identified as a set of beliefs and beliefs that are born in each culture and passed down from generation to generation. Also, this concept was a great opportunity to showcase the culture of the common people of society with various religious beliefs and practices centered on Lord Shiva. The primary problem of this research is to study what the modern social attitudes are towards the current status of religious beliefs related to the concept of Shiva. The primary objective of this study is to identify the behavior and religious beliefs associated with Shiva temples in the context of current social changes. As a research method, data was collected using the participatory observation method under the Qualitative Research method. Also, statistically based Quantitative data was used to identify the number of Shiva temples Established in Sri Lanka and their distribution. This study was conducted in connection with some selected major Shiva temples in Sri Lanka. Due to the strong attraction that developed in the human mind towards God in cultural integration, various social trends related to God were created. Lord Shiva, who occupies a prominent position in Hinduism as 'Mahadeva', takes precedence in Linga worship. Expectation of children can be identified as one of the main purposes of Shiva worship in local worship systems. The study revealed that the worship of Lord Shiva, which belongs to the rural religion, has been alienated from the common people. As a Maheshakya deity in the Hindu trinity, Shiva is supreme in his power and respectability. Thus, the overall research results revealed that the worship of Lord Shiva has moved away from the usual beliefs and worship.

Anthropological Aspects of Local Cults: Theoretical and Methodological Approaches to Studying Religious Sites of Memory

The article deals with theoretical approaches to the analysis of anthropological aspects of religious places of memory associated with the veneration of Christian saints. This form of religious practice is often a kind of refraction of a dogmatically formalized official religious system, passed through the prism of traditional beliefs, sometimes of archaic origin, in which the objects of worship are both officially fixed material objects (icons, sometimes sculptural images of saints or Mother-of-God, worship crosses), and unofficial locally revered shrines, including springs, stones, trees, and even landscapes. The author analyzes essentialist and non-essentialist theories used to interpret local cults of saints associated with the veneration of natural objects: the theory of dual faith (dvoeverie) and “Orthodox animism”, folk religion, lived religion, vernacular religion, material religion. The most successful methodological approach to explain the historical and cultural survival of religious places of memory, according to the author, is the actor-network theory of B. Latour. Being a non-essentialist approach, the actor-network theory does not distinguish between different types of actors: people, natural objects, and supernatural actors. Natural objects create a network between pilgrims and supernatural actors, which manifests itself in direct worship practices, an important element of which are appropriate votive offerings. Natural actors carry out the function of mediation between the worlds, connecting a person with a supernatural actor who is constantly invisibly present in a sacred place, and thus a network is built that has an important psychological significance for believers, thereby determining the social significance of religious places of memory.

From Three-in-One Doctrine to the Religion of Three-in-One: Lin Chaoen’s syncretic religion

In the middle and late Ming Dynasty, Lin Chaoen, who was also called the ‘Two heresies of Minzhong’ with Li Zhi, was famous for advocating the thought of ‘Three-in-One Doctrine’ and establishing the Religion of Three-in-One. In the past, the study of Lin Chaoen and the Religion of Three-in-One was basically based on religious study, and his identity as a scholar was ignored. Therefore, this article mainly analyses Lin Chaoen’s thought of ‘Three-in-One Doctrine’ from the field of philosophy and reveals the close relationship between his theory of three religions and the formation of the Religion of Three-in-One. Lin Chaoen’s thought originated from Yangming’s mind philosophy; thus, the emergence of the Religion of Three-in-One also means that the traditional Confucianism has the possibility of becoming a folk religion.Contribution: This article examines Lin Chaoen’s thought of ‘Three-in-One Doctrine’ from the perspective of philosophical theory, and reveals that the essence of his thought of ‘Three-in-One Doctrine’ is Yangming’s mind philosophy. Moreover, this article analyses the transformation process from the thought of ‘Three-in-One Doctrine’ to the Religion of Three-in-One, and reveals that the Religion of Three-in-One is a new type of folk religion developed from an academic group.

Cult Complex in Zanskar: Analysis, Interpretation

Purpose. The study investigates a Buddhist image on a standalone stone and an offering contained in a clay vessel. The cult complex is located near Zangla, not far from the Changut Choeling female monastery, in the north of Zanskar (Ladakh, India).Results. The image depicts the bodhisattva Avalokiteśvara, the patron deity of Tibet. The clay vessel (73 mm in height) found near the stone contains a square iron plate (~25x25 mm) with traces of insets, one of turquois; a transparent crystal bead; and two perforated bones. An examination of the vessel contents revealed that it originally contained a piece of meat or some blood. Based on a traceological analysis of the bone items, they appear to have been worn on a cord. All the items in the vessel are of special significance in the Buddhist culture as well as folk religion of Tibet. They could have served as offerings to Avalokiteśvara as well as local patron deities – btsan and lha, who were believed to live in that stone. After all, Buddhism in Tibet became part of the folk religion. The tradition of making offerings in a vessel placed at the foot of a stone with a divine image has parallels in the culture of Central Asian Turks. Excavations of Turkic mortuaries have revealed silver, as well as ceramic, vessels at the foot of heroic figures. Researchers believe that they were used for sacrificial offerings and for drinks in funeral rituals. Like in Zanskar, such vessels were left on the surface, and over a thousand years must have passed before they became fully covered with earth so that they would later be found during excavations.Conclusion. Offerings in vessels placed at the foot of stone statues of deities and ancestors, as well as stones accommodating local patron spirits, appear to have been common among the peoples of Central Asia in the Middle Ages.

双重困境：改革开放后三一教面临的问题研究 ——基于仙游县的田野调查报告

As a distinctive folk religion, the “Three-in-One” in Putian and Xianyou, Fujian Province, has developed rapidly in the process of interaction between itself and the society, and at the same time, many problems have emerged. This paper takes the field study of the “Three-in-One” in Xianyou County, Fujian Province as an example, and discusses the problems and prospects for the development of contemporary the “Three-in-One” from the perspective of macro-policy management and the development of the “Three-in-One’ itself. Influenced by the imperfections of folk religion laws, regulations and policies, the management of the “Three-in-One” is still in the exploratory stage, while the “Three-in-One” itself is also affected by the general policy environment, the belief groups and historical factors, and has problems in beliefs and weakened functions.