Attentional Focus Instructions Research Articles

The Effects of Holistic, External, and Internal Attentional Focus Instructions on Power and Kinematics of the Hang Power Snatch in Highly Skilled Weightlifters.

Athletes across various sports seek to enhance their power generation and force production by incorporating weightlifting exercises into their training. Therefore, integrating partial weightlifting movements could be sensible due to their simplified execution. Our research aimed to investigate which of four attentional focus strategies (external, internal, holistic, and neutral) would have the greatest impact on performance in terms of power variables for highly experienced weightlifting athletes in a practical training setting. Twelve highly skilled Olympic weightlifters volunteered for the study. They performed 48 single repetitions of the hang power snatch with each of the four attentional focus strategies. Results of the ANOVA did not reveal a significant main effect for maximum velocity, power measurement and displacement. Despite extensive research demonstrating how attentional focus affects performance differently, even among highly skilled populations, the lack of observed effects in our study underscores the challenges of conducting research in applied settings.

Attentional focus strategies in racket sports: A systematic review.

The body of evidence has shown that the external focus of attention (EF) rather than the internal focus of attention (IF) enhances motor skill learning and performance. Within racket sports which require a high level of motor control, anticipation skills, and mental preparedness, effectively directing attention is essential to elicit improvements in athletic performance. The present review aimed to evaluate the scientific evidence concerning the effects of attentional focus instructions on motor learning and performance in racket sports. We systematically reviewed the literature according to the Preferred Reporting Items for Systematic Review and Meta-Analyses (PRISMA) guidelines. The study was registered with the Open Science Framework (osf.io/m4zat). Four electronic databases (Web of Science, Scopus, MEDLINE, and SPORTDiscus) were searched for original research publications. Inclusion criteria were: peer-reviewed journals; healthy and free from injury participants; attentional focus literature specific to the external or internal focus; attentional focus related to motor learning or motor performance; studies included at least one comparator (e.g., different attentional focus group, or control groups with neutral or no specific instruction); publications in which task(s) or skill(s) related to one of the racket sports (tennis, table tennis, badminton, squash, or padel). The initial search yielded 2005 studies. Finally, 9 studies were included in the quantitative analysis. Overall, the results indicated that EF benefits the learning and performance of racket sport skills, compared to IF and over control conditions. The findings suggest that coaches and practitioners should consider the adoption of EF to optimize racket skills performance, particularly in novice or low-skilled athletes.

Response of Knee Joint Biomechanics to Landing Under Internal and External Focus of Attention in Female Volleyball Players.

The aim of this study was to examine the effect of attentional focus instructions on the biomechanical variables associated with the risk of anterior cruciate ligament injury of the knee joint during a drop landing task using a time series analysis. Ten female volleyball players (age: 20.4 ± 0.8years, height: 169.7 ± 7.1cm, mass: 57.6 ± 3.1kg, experience: 6.3 ± 0.8years) performed landings from a 50cm height under three different attentional focus conditions: (1) external focus (focus on landing as soft as possible), (2) internal focus (focus on bending your knees when you land), and (3) control (no-focus instruction). Statistical parameter mapping in the sagittal plane during the crucial first 30% of landing time showed a significant effect of attentional focus instructions. Despite the similarity in landing performance across foci instructions, adopting an external focus instruction promoted reduced vertical ground reaction force and lower sagittal flexion moment during the first 30% of execution time compared to internal focus, suggesting reduced knee loading. Therefore, adopting an external focus of attention was suggested to reduce most biomechanical risk variables in the sagittal plane associated with anterior cruciate ligament injuries, compared to internal focus and control condition. No significant differences were found in the frontal and horizontal planes between the conditions during this crucial interval.

Flywheel Romanian Deadlift: Intra- and Inter-Day Kinetic and Kinematic Reliability of Four Inertial Loads Using Cluster Sets.

The primary aim of this study was to investigate the intra- and inter-day reliability of flywheel cluster set training in concentric power (CON), eccentric power (ECC), and ECC overload during the Romanian deadlift exercise (RDL). A secondary aim was to assess the acute effect of internal and external attentional focus instructions on mean power when performing the flywheel RDL. Fourteen collegiate male field sport athletes (age, 23.3 ± 3.7 years; mass, 80.8 ± 9.9 kg; height, 1.79 ± 0.06 m) were randomized into internal (n = 7) or external (n = 7) attentional focus groups and attended four testing sessions, with a between-session separation of 7 days. Sessions consisted of four cluster sets of fifteen repetitions "excluding momentum repetitions" (4 × (5 + 5 + 5)) using a specific inertial load (0.025, 0.050, 0.075, and 0.100 kg·m-2) for a given set in a randomized ascending or descending order. Cluster sets were separated by a 45 s intra-set rest period. Both instructional focus groups attained familiarization, although the time taken to achieve familiarization (outcome stability) differed between groups. The external instructional group attained familiarization post-session 2 (Cohen's d (ES), ES = 0.11-0.65) with little volatility between performance measures (CV% = 4.61-9.59). Additionally, the internal group reported inconsistencies among all inertial loads, reporting large differences in MP in the 0.100 kg·m-2 inertial load from day 2 to day 3 (ES = 1.22) and both 0.050 kg·m2 (p = 0.010) and 0.075 kg·m-2 (p = 0.016) between day 3 and day 4. The flywheel RDL cluster set approach is a reliable training modality for maintaining mean power output during cluster set repetitions.

Attentional Focus Strategies for Promoting Children's Motor Learning: A Scoping Review With a Learner-Task-Environment Framework.

There is emerging evidence that attentional focus instructions and feedback may help children with motor learning. However, information relevant to learner characteristics, settings, and contexts in which attentional focus strategies can be used has not been synthesized. Therefore, in this review, we adopted a learner-task-environment framework to map the evidence to date related to attentional focus strategies in children's motor learning. We adapted the framework for scoping reviews put forth by Arksey and O'Malley (2005) and the enhanced protocol recommended by the Joanna Briggs Institute (Peters et al., 2021). Two researchers (a) identified the research question, (b) identified relevant studies, (c) selected studies, (d) charted the data, and (e) collated, summarized, and reported these results. We included 30 papers, all of which used an experimental or quasi-experimental design. Most studies have focused on typically developing children and those in middle childhood as learners. The movement tasks in these studies included isolated fundamental movement skills and sport-related tasks. All but one study were situated in non-clinical settings (i.e., school, laboratory). We found limited use of attentional focus strategies for learning movement tasks in early childhood, especially among children with neurodevelopmental disorders. Movement tasks were mostly isolated skills, and there was extremely limited application to clinical settings.

Effects of mental fatigue and attentional focus on muscular endurance performance

ABSTRACT Mental fatigue shows consistent detrimental effects on physically-demanding tasks including running and muscular endurance tasks. Several strategies to mitigate these effects have been assessed; however, it is also important to explore factors that may combine with mental fatigue to amplify performance decrements. The present study investigated potential moderating effects of attentional focus on the mental fatigue – endurance performance relationship. Undergraduates (N = 78) completed two wall-sit tasks to volitional failure prior to, and following, a cognitive task. Using a 2 X 2 randomised factorial design, half the participants completed a mentally fatiguing cognitive task (incongruent Stroop; HF), while the other half performed a non-mentally fatiguing task (documentary viewing; LF). Prior to the second wall-sit task, half the participants in each of the HF and LF groups were given attentional focus instructions to focus internally (INT) and the other half to focus externally (EXT). Both the mental fatigue (p < .001) and attentional focus (p < .001) manipulations were found to be successful. Planned comparisons showed no significant effects of attentional focus or mental fatigue on wall-sit endurance performance. However, a large effect size was observed between the HF/INT group and the other three groups (d = −1.56). Overall, data indicate a potential moderating effect of attentional focus such that internal focus and high mental fatigue may combine to have detrimental effects on physical endurance performance.

Examining the effectiveness of focus of attention instructions on the learning of a badminton long serve in novice students: movement automaticity hypothesis

ABSTRACT The superiority of an external focus of attention in motor performance and learning has been confirmed in many studies. However, less research has been done on how well the focus of attention performs under various conditions, such as when performing a dual-task. Recent research also suggests a holistic focus may provide a similar benefit to motor learning and performance. The current study investigates how an internal, external, and holistic focus influences motor learning in single and dual-task conditions. Sixty adolescent girls aged 14–17 without previous experience in the badminton long serve were selected as a sample and participated in the study. Participants were divided randomly into four groups: internal focus (pay attention to the performer's arm), external focus (pay attention to the racket), holistic focus (pay attention to smooth movement), and control group (no attentional focus instructions). Badminton long serves were performed in the acquisition phase (5 sessions), three retention tests (after 48 h, after one week, after one month), transfer and dual-task (with cognitive task) tests were assessed with accuracy as a dependent variable. Both external and holistic focus groups served more accurately in the retention and transfer phase (including dual-task transfer). A holistic focus also enhanced performance throughout acquisition relative to a control group. A holistic and external focus can be used to enhance motor learning. This benefit may be due to enhanced movement automaticity. Practitioners should consider the use of both holistic and external focus cues when giving instructions.

Efficacy of cognitive attentional focus instructions and training schedule on cognitive performance in elderly men

Introduction: Cognitive-motor skills form a large part of human life, and for many years researchers and educators have attempted to identify factors that influence their implementation. Aim: The present study aimed to investigate the effectiveness of cognitive attentional focus instructions and exercise schedule on cognitive performance in elderly men. Method: The present study was a semi-experimental method with a pretest-posttest design and 4 experimental groups. Sixty elderly men from Ahvaz city aged 60-80 years were selected by voluntary random sampling in 2020 and randomly divided into four experimental groups (variable practice-internal attention, variable practice-external attention, constant practice-external attention, and constant practice-internal attention). The dartboard attached to the wall served as a tool. The research groups had 10 sessions and each session consisted of 3 blocks of 10 trials. Thus, the test was performed 48 hours after the subjects' last training session. Data were analyzed using one-way ANOVA and mixed repeated measures analysis of variance. Results: The results of one-way ANOVA showed that there was a significant difference between the groups in the posttest phase (P=0.001, F=11.43). Tukey's post hoc test was used to test the differences. The results showed a significant difference between the variable practice-external attention group with variable practice-internal attention (P=0.011), constant practice-external attention (P=0.001), and constant practice-internal attention (P=0.001) groups. However, no difference was found between the other study groups at this stage. Conclusion: Based on the research results, the combined group with variable practice-external attention performed better than the other groups. Considering that the variable practice-external attention training group showed better cognitive performance, geriatric sneakers and professionals are recommended to use the combined advantage of these two methods in their training plans.

Attentional focus effects on joint covariation in a reaching task

Adopting an external focus of attention (EF) has been found beneficial over internal focus (IF) for performing motor skills. Previous studies primarily examined focus of attention (FOA) effects on performance outcomes (such as error and accuracy), with relatively less emphasis on movement coordination. Given that human movements are kinematically and kinetically abundant (Gefland & Latash, 1998), FOA instructions may change how motor abundance is utilized by the CNS. This study applied the uncontrolled manifold analysis (UCM) to address this question in a reaching task. Healthy young adults (N = 38; 22 ± 1 yr; 7 men, 31 women) performed planar reaching movements to a target using either the dominant or nondominant arm under two different FOA instructions: EF and IF. Reaching was performed without online visual feedback and at a preferred pace. Joint angles of the clavicle-scapula, shoulder, elbow, and wrist were recorded, and their covariation for controlling dowel endpoint position was analyzed via UCM. As expected, IF led to a higher mean radial error than EF, driven by increases in aiming bias and variability. Consistent with this result, the UCM analysis showed that IF led to higher goal-relevant variance among the joints (VORT) compared to EF starting from the first 20% of the reach to the end. However, the goal-irrelevant variance (VUCM)—index of joint variance that does not affect the end-effector position—did not show FOA effects. The index of stability of joint coordination with respect to endpoint position (ΔV) was also not different between the EF and IF. Consistent with the constrained action hypothesis, these results provide evidence that IF disrupted goal-relevant joint covariation starting in the early phases of the reach without affecting goal-irrelevant coordination.

The order of attentional focus instructions affects how postural control processes compensate for multisensory mismatch: a crossover study

Directing attention during balance training can have an immediate and lasting impact on a patient's balance and ultimately decrease the risk of future falls. However, it is unclear how attention can best be utilized to improve postural control. The current study uses a 2 × 2 crossover design to investigate the potential impact of receiving multiple verbal instructions during a single session of sensorimotor control testing for balance. Twenty-eight healthy adults were tasked to balance on a rocker board while immersed in virtual reality (VR). The VR created a multisensory mismatch between visual VR motion and body motion. The strength of the relationship between visual motion and body motion was measured to assess visual dependence. Alpha and theta frequency bands in electroencephalography (EEG) recordings were also analyzed to identify potential neural correlates of visual dependence and postural stability. Participants were randomized into two groups: one group was first instructed to keep the board leveled (external focus) and then instructed to keep both feet leveled (internal focus) to help maintain stability. The other group was given these two instructions in reverse order. Analyses focused on time, instruction, and group effects from receiving multiple instructions. Results revealed that when participants are given external focus first, and internal focus second, they are more likely to demonstrate lower visual dependence and better postural stability throughout the entire session than participants given internal focus first and external focus second. However, channel-level EEG analyses did not reveal differences between the groups. Current findings suggest that the order of attentional focus instructions may influence how the postural control system resolves sensory incongruence during a single testing session.

The Effect of Attentional Focus on Real-Time Conscious Motor Processing During Tandem Walking in Young Adults

The theory of reinvestment in experimental psychology suggested that automated performance could be degraded if attention was internally diverted to the process of skill execution. This study examined the role of attentional focus instructions on real-time conscious motor processing (i.e., reinvestment) during tandem walking. Thirty-six young adults (mean age = 20.94, SD = 1.43 years) participated; their electroencephalography T3–Fz coherence (i.e., real-time reinvestment) was measured during three walking conditions with different attentional focus instructions: external focus, internal focus, and control conditions. The results suggested that attentional focus instructions did not significantly affect real-time conscious motor processing during tandem walking in young adults, possibly due to the low level of motor task complexity of walking by young adults. The Movement-Specific Reinvestment Scale appears to be not sensitive enough to reflect the real-time reinvestment during gait-related movements in young adults.

External focus of attention enhances arm velocities during volleyball spike in young female players.

The aim of this study was to investigate the effect of different volleyball-specific attentional focus instructions on arm velocities of a volleyball spike in young female volleyball players using the Statistical Parametric Mapping method. Twelve young female volleyball players (13.6 ± 0.6 years old, 1.8 ± 0.8 years of experience in volleyball training) were asked to perform a volleyball spike in a standing position in three different attentional focus conditions including internal focus (IF, i.e., pull back your elbow prior to transfer momentum), external focus, (EF, i.e., imagine cracking a whip to transfer momentum), and control (CON, i.e., no-focus instruction). A Qualisys 3D motion capture-system was used to track reflective markers attached to the arm, forearm, and hand. Consequently, four phases of the volleyball spike including wind-up, cocking, acceleration, and follow-through were analyzed. A one-way repeated-measure ANOVA using one-dimensional statistical parametric mapping (SPM1d) showed that players achieved greater velocities in the hand (p < 0.01), forearm (p < 0.01), and arm (p < 0.01) using the EF instructions from the start of the wind-up phase to the acceleration phase. Post-hoc (SPM1d-t-tests-paired) analyses indicated significantly greater arm, forearm, and hand velocities during the EF condition, compared to CON (p < 0.01, p < 0.01, and p < 0.01 respectively) and IF (p < 0.01, p < 0.01, and p < 0.01 respectively) conditions. These findings suggest that EF instructions had an immediate impact on increasing volleyball spike velocity from the start of the wind-up phase to the acceleration phase prior to ball contact.

The effect of attentional focus instructions on performance and technique in a complex open skill

ABSTRACT External focus of attention has been shown to promote more automatic motor control, yielding better performance and more efficient technique, than an internal focus. However, most research has used closed-skill tasks in novices. The extent to which the reported pattern of findings generalises to more complex, time-constrained tasks requires further investigation. In this study, we investigated the effect of attentional focus instructions on performance and technique in an open-skill task in skilled performers. Thirteen skilled cricket batters batted from a ball projector in four conditions, receiving instructions to focus on the movement of their hands (internal focus), the movement of their bat (proximal external focus), the flight of the ball (distal external focus), or no instruction (control). Performance and technique were measured by quality of bat-ball contacts and step length/knee flexion, respectively, whilst playing straight drives. Compared to external focus and control conditions, focusing internally yielded significantly worse batting performance and shorter step lengths, with the largest effects observed between internal and distal external focus conditions. Quality of bat-ball contact data suggested that participants’ ability to protect the wicket (as evidenced by more miss/edge shots) was more negatively affected by focusing internally than their ability to play shots to score runs (as evidenced by fewer good bat-ball contacts). Findings suggest that, for skilled performance of open-skill tasks, a distal external focus yields more effective performance and technique compared with focusing internally. Findings highlight the need for further research on attentional focus effects between different skills within specific sports. Highlights A distal external focus of attention enhances performance and technique of skilled cricket batters compared with an internal focus. Providing skilled batters with no instructions yields similar performance benefits to distal external focus instructions. Focusing internally differentially negatively affects skilled cricket batters depending on the strategic intention of the shot being played (e.g. protecting the wicket vs attempting to score runs).

Age and attentional focus instructions effects on postural and supra-postural tasks among older adults with mild cognitive impairments.

The purpose of this study was to investigate the age and attentional focus instruction effects on the postural and supra-postural tasks among older adults with mild cognitive impairments. Forty healthy adults (mean age of 48.01 ± 5.45years) and 40 older adults with mild cognitive impairments (mean age of 69.87 ± 4.28years) were selected as participants. They were randomly divided into eight groups receiving internal and external attentional focus instructions for postural and supra-postural tasks. The postural status was evaluated by measuring the COP sway velocity with the Master Balance System. The results showed that in both phases of acquisition and retention, the main effect of the attentional focus type was significant (P < 0.05). The group's postural control with external attentional instructions was better than the group's postural control with internal attentional instructions. Furthermore, the CI elderly gained benefit from the guidelines of attentional focus. Results showed that the task type was not significant in the acquisition phase. However, in the retention phase, the main effect of the attentional focus type was significant. The groups' postural function with the supra-postural task was better than the groups with the postural task. Furthermore, the older adults showed a better postural function in the supra-postural task than in the postural task. Our results showed that the ability to allocate resources of attention may decrease with CI. These findings suggest that considering the effect of the supra-postural tasks' manipulation on postural control, it is possible to improve balance by designing training programs for directing supra-postural tasks. The findings of the present study can be a guide for educators and therapists. They can increase the balance of the patients by considering the dysfunction and the type of attentional guidelines to prevent them from falling and performing a dual task.

External focus facilitates cognitive stability and promotes motor performance of an interceptive task in children

ABSTRACT Recent evidence suggests that one of the benefits of external focus is facilitating task focus. To this extent, an external focus might influence cognitive function. To help elucidate the underlying mechanisms of attentional focus instructions, the aim of this study was to examine the influence of attentional focus instructions on cognitive stability and task focus, as indicated by the number of eye blinks, during an interceptive timing task with children who are at a crucial stage of motor coordination development. Twenty-four children (M age = 10.4 ± 0.9 years) performed a forehand drag shot with a floorball stick to hit a tennis ball at a target in each of three different attentional focus conditions: external focus “focus on the blade of the stick”, internal focus “focus on their hands”, and control (no focus instructions). A mobile eye tracker was used to record the number of eye blinks from the moment that the tennis ball was released by an experimenter from the top of a boccia ramp to the moment of the initial movement of the floorball stick. Results showed that the accuracy of hits was significantly better in the external focus relative to the internal focus condition. Also, the number of eye blinks was significantly lower in the external focus relative to the internal focus and control conditions. Findings suggest that improved cognitive stability and task focus may underlie the improved performance associated with an external focus in a visually demanding motor task in children.

A meta-analysis on immediate effects of attentional focus on motor tasks performance

ABSTRACT Directing the attentional focus towards intended movement effects could enhance individual performance. This meta-analysis examines the immediate effects of an instructed external (proximal/distal) and internal attentional focus on an experimental group and a control group on their performance. A systematic review was done following the PRISMA guidelines. A total of 3833 reports were scanned. Of these, 83 were included in the systematic review, and 61 studies were included into the meta-analysis. The meta-analysis was additionally split into the original categories, which included the instructions as mentioned in the paper, and the adapted classifications, for which the instructions were reclassified based on the definition by [Wulf, G. (2013). Attentional focus and motor learning: A review of 15 years. International Review of sport and Exercise psychology, 6(1), 77–104. doii:10.1080/1750984X.2012.723728 and McNevin, N. H., Shea, C. H., & Wulf, G. (2003). Increasing the distance of an external focus of attention enhances learning. Psychological Research, 67(1), 22–29. doii:10.1007/s00426-002-0093-6]. In line with the constrained-action hypothesis, an external attentional focus instruction enhanced the immediate performance compared to an internal attentional focus instruction (SMDadapted = 0.24) and the control group (SMDadapted SMD = 0.31). Also, consistent with the constrained-action hypothesis, distal external attentional focus instructions showed performance-enhancing effects compared to proximal external attentional focus instructions (SMDadapted = 0.23). However, most comparisons showed moderate to substantial heterogeneity and wide prediction intervals. Therefore, the results cannot be generalized for all tasks and skill levels.

Postural Control in Older Adults During and Following a 12-Week Balance Training Intervention With Attentional Focus Instructions

Adults (N = 54, 80.78 ± 6.08 years) who reported falling during the previous 12 months participated in a 12-week wobble board training program with internal focus or external focus (EF) instructions. Verbal manipulation checks were performed after training sessions as a self-report of the attentional foci used. The percentage of sessions in which participants reported using an EF (EFSR) was subsequently calculated. Mean velocity and mean power frequency in the anterior–posterior (MVELOAP and MPFAP) and medial–lateral (MVELOML and MPFML) direction were assessed during a 35-s wobble board task at Weeks 0, 6, 12, 13, 16, and 20, with the latter three as retention tests. Piecewise linear growth models estimated treatment effects on individual growth trajectories of MVELOAP and ML and MPFAP and ML during intervention and retention periods. Regardless of condition, MVELOML significantly decreased (π = −.0019, p = .005) and MPFML increased (π = .025, p &lt; .02) during the intervention period. In analyses including interaction terms, participants in the EF group who reported greater EFSR had superior progression of MPFAP during the intervention (π = .0013, p = .025). Verbal manipulation checks suggest a preference for and advantage of EF for facilitating postural control performance and automaticity.

Does instructing attentional focus direction affect static single leg balance performance?

Balance and postural control exercises are generally included as a part of exercise programs, during which movement practitioners can provide instructions to facilitate the performance of motor skills. Instructions can be used as cues to direct attentional focus, which has been found to affect the performance of motor skills, including balance and postural control tasks. However, no known studies to date have investigated the effect of both internal and external attentional focus instructions on static single leg balance performance, and it seems unclear whether effects of such instructions are related specifically to the direction of attention. The purpose of this study was to investigate the effect of instructing the direction of attentional focus on single leg static balance performance as reflected by the complexity of the center of pressure (COP) profile. Participants (N = 46) between the ages of 19–28 years old were randomly assigned to one of three group conditions: internal focus (INTn=15), external focus (EXTn=16) and control (CONn=15). Participants performed a thirty-five second static single leg balance task. Outcome measures were the scaling exponent determined from a detrended fluctuation analysis (DFA) to infer complexity of the COP profile in the anterior-posterior (AP) and medial-lateral (ML) directions, and root mean square error (RMSE) of the COP profile in AP and ML directions. A one-way analysis of variance (ANOVA) determined there were no statistically significant differences in the measured variables among groups. The results do not support the claim that manipulating the direction of attentional focus affects static single leg balance performance.

Do attentional focus instructions affect real-time reinvestment during level-ground walking in older adults?

This study represents the first attempt in exploring whether attentional focus instructions could affect real-time reinvestment (conscious movement processing) in older adults during level-ground walking. Forty-five community-dwelling older adults were instructed to walk at a self-selected pace along a 6-m level-ground walkway under three randomized attentional focus conditions (i.e., Internal, External, and Control) for a total of fifteen trials (five trials for each condition). Electroencephalography (EEG) T3-Fz coherence was utilized as an objective measurement of real-time reinvestment during walking. The Chinese version of the Movement-Specific Reinvestment Scale (MSRS-C) was used to measure the trait reinvestment propensity. Results revealed that the EEG T3-Fz coherence did not differ among the three conditions. The EEG T3-Fz coherence at the Control condition was not correlated with the scores of the MSRS-C. Our findings suggest that the measurement of trait reinvestment propensity (MSRS-C) may not be sensitive enough to reflect real-time reinvestment. Moreover, attentional focus instructions do not affect real-time reinvestment during level-ground walking, possibly due to the low level of motor task difficulty in level-ground walking for healthy older adults. Future studies should investigate this influential issue with a more challenging walking task.

Effects of focus of attention instructions on listeners’ evaluations of solo instrumental performance

The purpose of this study was to examine the effects of focus of attention instructions (i.e. focus on the solo, accompaniment, or collaboration) on listeners’ performance evaluations. Participants ( N = 159) were inservice band directors who listened to and evaluated the accuracy and expressivity of four excerpts of Haydn’s Concerto for Trumpet in E-Flat Major, which we created by synchronizing recordings of good and bad performances of a trumpet soloist with good and bad performances of a piano accompaniment. Results indicated a significant main effect for focus-of-attention instructions group, indicating that listeners’ ratings were affected by the focus-of-attention instructions they received. However, we also found a significant three-way interaction among solo, accompaniment, and group, which signified that the effects of focus-of-attention instructions varied according to both solo and accompaniment conditions. Asking adjudicators to focus their evaluations on the collaborative performance of a soloist and pianist may result in different performance ratings than when asked to rate the soloist or pianist only. Implications for music educators and solo and ensemble event organizers are discussed.