Fluency Difficulties Research Articles

Impact of Parent-Child Paired Reading on Reading Fluency in Children with Intellectual Disabilities: A Single-Subject Study

Children with intellectual disabilities (ID) face difficulties in reading fluency, which may hinder their overall reading development. To address this challenge, this study investigated the impact of parent-child pairing reading on reading accuracy and speed in children with intellectual disabilities. Three children with ID participated in this cross-subject multi-baseline single-subject study and their parents were trained to use paired reading strategies to engage in a six week reading activity with them. The study was divided into three stages, with participants without reading guidance during the baseline and maintenance periods. During the intervention period, parents used paired reading strategies to guide their children in reading. Data were collected and analyzed using Statistical Package for the Social Sciences and interviews with parents who participated in the study were conducted to assist with assessment of the intervention results. After intervention, all three children showed better reading accuracy than the baseline period, indicating the effectiveness of the intervention. The intervention had little effect on the reading speed of the three participants, but it gradually improved during the maintenance period. Each of the parents held a positive attitude toward the effectiveness and applicability of parent-child paired reading in children with intellectual disabilities. The results of this preliminary study indicate that training and guiding parents to implement paired reading strategies can effectively improve reading fluency in children with intellectual disabilities.

Reading Difficulties of Grade 4 Learners in the Post-Pandemic

The post-pandemic era exacerbated the reading difficulties of learners due to disrupted learning, limited access to resources, and potential gaps in foundational skills. Along this premise, this study analyzed the level of reading difficulties of Grade 4 learners in the post-pandemic. Data needed for the descriptive study was collected from 155 respondents using a self–made 40–item questionnaire that passed the rigorous tests of validity and reliability. Across areas of concern, the level of reading difficulties of Grade 4 learners was found to be moderate. Further, a significant difference was found in respondents’ reading difficulties in word decoding, fluency, reading comprehension, and vocabulary when grouped according to parents’ educational attainment, family income, and number of siblings. However, no significant difference was found in groupings by fluency and sex. These findings call for technical assistance and workshops for teachers to equip them with techniques and strategies in teaching reading and creating a sustainable reading program that will capacitate and strengthen learners’ motivation towards reading, aiming to improve their skills in word decoding, fluency, reading comprehension, and vocabulary. Keywords: Language education, reading difficulties, word decoding and fluency, reading comprehension and vocabulary, Negros Occidental, Philippines

Junior High School Written Work Fluent and Accurate

The present study determined the written language performance of junior high school students at Bulan National High School S. Y.2023 - 2024. The study utilized a mixed methods approach, combining quantitative and qualitative methods to assess the students' written language proficiency. Quantitative data were collected using rubrics to evaluate fluency and accuracy, while qualitative data were obtained through content analysis of the students' essays. The findings revealed that the students' performance in terms of fluency and accuracy varied, with areas of improvement identified in both aspects. Difficulties encountered by the participants included challenges in maintaining coherence and organization in their writing, as well as issues related to spelling accuracy and punctuation and capitalization usage. Based on the findings, an action plan titled "Enhancing Written Language Skills Program" was proposed to address these challenges and improve the students' writing abilities. The study's conclusions indicated that while the average performance level of the junior high school students in terms of fluency and accuracy met the set standards, there were variations in individual performance levels. The participants faced difficulties in fluency and accuracy, including challenges related to content fluency, organization of ideas, spelling accuracy, and proper punctuation and capitalization usage. To address these challenges, the study recommended differentiated instruction, explicit instruction on effective writing components, targeted practice activities, self - editing and revision strategies, a comprehensive curriculum integrating explicit instruction and authentic writing tasks, professional development for teachers, formative assessments for progress monitoring, fostering a supportive writing environment, and utilizing technology resources. In addition to the recommendations from the study, further research was recommended to investigate the effectiveness of different instructional strategies in improving students' writing skills. This research could compare explicit instruction with other approaches, such as inquiry - based learning or project - based learning, to determine their impact on fluency, coherence, accuracy, and organization. Conducting such research would provide valuable insights and evidence - based recommendations for educators to enhance their instructional practices and support students' development in writing with fluency and accuracy.

Predicting Adolescent Arithmetic and Reading Dysfluency.

The long-term negative consequences of learning difficulties have been acknowledged. Nonetheless, research is still scarce regarding the prediction of adolescent difficulties in reading and arithmetic skills. The present study examines at which age phase and with what kind of constellation of parent- and child-related factors can adolescent difficulties in arithmetic and/or reading fluency be successfully predicted. A sample of Finnish children (N = 941) was followed from the onset of kindergarten (at age 6) through adolescence (ages 13-16). Children's cognitive skills were assessed in kindergarten, and arithmetic and reading fluency were examined in Grades 2, 4, 6, 7, and 9. Parents' self-report data were collected on their own learning difficulties and educational level. Scoring below the 16th percentile in both Grades 7 and 9 was set as the criterion for dysfluency either in reading (N = 87, 9.2%) or arithmetic (N = 84, 8.9%). Adolescent dysfluency in both domains was moderately predicted by parental measures and kindergarten cognitive skills. Although adding school-age fluency measures clearly increased both the predictability and specificity of models up to Grade 4 for both skills, knowledge of letters' names, counting, and visuospatial skills remained unique predictors of dysfluency in adolescence.

Dysfluency in primary progressive aphasia: Temporal speech parameters

ABSTRACT Analysing spontaneous speech in individuals experiencing fluency difficulties holds potential for diagnosing speech and language disorders, including Primary Progressive Aphasia (PPA). Dysfluency in the spontaneous speech of patients with PPA has mostly been described in terms of abnormal pausing behaviour, but the temporal features related to speech have drawn little attention. This study compares speech-related fluency parameters in the three main variants of PPA and in typical speech. Forty-three adults participated in this research, thirteen with the logopenic variant of PPA (lvPPA), ten with the non-fluent variant (nfvPPA), nine with the semantic variant (svPPA), and eleven who were healthy age-matched adults. Participants’ fluency was assessed through a picture description task from which 42 parameters were computed including syllable duration, speaking pace, the duration of speech chunks (i.e. interpausal units, IPU), and the number of linguistic units per IPU and per second. The results showed that each PPA variant exhibited abnormal speech characteristics reflecting various underlying factors, from motor speech deficits to higher-level issues. Out of the 42 parameters considered, 37 proved useful for characterising dysfluency in the three main PPA variants and 35 in distinguishing among them. Therefore, taking into account not only pausing behaviour but also temporal speech parameters can provide a fuller understanding of dysfluency in PPA. However, no single parameter by itself sufficed to distinguish one PPA group from the other two, further evidence that dysfluency is not dichotomous but rather multidimensional, and that complementary multiparametric analyses are needed.

Communication Strategies, Difficulties, and Speaking Tasks in Foreign Language Learning

This study explored the communication strategies of college students majoring in one of five modern foreign languages (i.e., English, French, German, Japanese, and Spanish) and their relation to communication confidence. It also explored the association between their strategy use and the difficulty regarding the speaking components, and students’ feedback on pedagogical tasks to improve their speaking ability. A questionnaire survey of communication strategy was distributed to 538 college students in Taiwan, and semi-structured interviews were conducted with 20 students. The results showed that there was a statistically significant difference between the majored language and the use of communication strategies. Specifically, a one-way between-groups MANOVA revealed that the participants adopted the message reduction/alteration and fluency-oriented strategies frequently and equally, regardless of the language they studied. English and Spanish learners employed social affective, phonological awareness, and negotiation for meaning while speaking strategies more frequently than German learners. Students who reported difficulties in fluency, lexical resources, grammatical accuracy, and pronunciation while speaking the major language employed social affective strategies less frequently. Finally, students’ preferences for particular tasks reflected the speaking components they wished to foster. It is concluded that lexical and grammatical knowledge should be emphasized first to build communication confidence and strengthen fluency.

Leveraging Visual-Spatial Abilities to Unlock Speech: An Arts-Based Interdisciplinary Approach to Promoting Inclusion and Equity for Children with Autism

This paper investigates the relationship between visual-spatial abilities, cognitive factors, affective factors, and speech fluency achievement in children with Autism Spectrum Disorder (ASD). ASD impacts communication, behavior, and thinking. Children with ASD often exhibit speech fluency difficulties, which can inhibit academic success. However, individuals with ASD possess strong visual-spatial abilities for processing visual information. This study hypothesized that visual-spatial abilities influence speech fluency through cognitive factors (prior knowledge, executive functions) and affective factors (self-efficacy, attitude). A conceptual framework integrated Novak’s Meaningful Learning Model examining relationships between cognitive, affective, and achievement factors. A quantitative methodology utilized questionnaires to collect data for statistical analysis. Results revealed positive, significant effects of cognitive and affective factors on speech fluency. Mediation analysis found partial mediator effects for prior knowledge, attitude, and executive functions between visual-spatial abilities and speech fluency. Findings supported an integrated Visual-Spatial Mediated Model of Speech Fluency in ASD Children (i-VSM). This model can guide interventions to improve speech and language outcomes for children with ASD, supporting their educational development and success. Findings have implications for supporting the UN Sustainable Development Goals on quality education and reduced inequalities for disadvantaged children.

Insights Into Challenges Faced by Interpreting Trainees and Their Error Patterns

This study explored the challenges faced by trainees in Arabic and English interpreting by analyzing prevalent errors and investigating their underlying causes. A cohort of 31 female students underwent simultaneous interpretation tests in both languages. The data were used to identify challenges encountered during the interpretation process and analyze participants’ performance using Musa and Al-Maryani’s (2021) eclectic model. The study also examined the impact of L2 level on interpreting output. The findings show that omission is the most common error in interpreting both English and Arabic speech and is often employed as a coping technique for challenges such as speech speed, specialized terminology, structural differences, and numerical information. Hesitation was more pronounced when interpreting English into Arabic, indicating difficulties in directionality and language fluency. Regardless of language proficiency or level, all participants made similar errors when interpreting Arabic and English speech. These findings highlight the importance of developing comprehensive interpreter training that focuses not only on L2 proficiency, but also on strategies for managing the challenges encountered during interpretation, such as speech speed, specialized terminology, and directionality.

Efficacy of Script Training on Broca’s Aphasia Patients

Background: Broca’s Aphasia is a language disorder characterized by difficulties in speech production and fluency, significantly affecting communication. Script training, a language rehabilitation technique, has shown promise in treating this condition. However, its efficacy in a controlled clinical setting had yet to be fully explored. Objective: The objective of this study was to assess the effectiveness of script training in improving the expressive language abilities of individuals with Broca’s Aphasia. Methods: This case report study was conducted over a period of six months at the University of Lahore Teaching Hospital. Using purposive sampling, patients diagnosed with Broca’s Aphasia were selected. Participants underwent script training sessions, which involved repetitive practice of personalized scripts. The Mississippi Aphasia Screening Test (MAST) was employed for initial assessments and tracking progress. Ethical considerations were strictly adhered to, with informed consent obtained from all participants. The study included both quantitative and qualitative methods for data analysis. Results: The study demonstrated significant improvements in participants' expressive language abilities. Pre-therapy MAST scores averaged at 10/50, which increased to an average of 23/50 post-therapy. Notable areas of improvement included Naming (from 3/10 to 6/10), Automatic Speech (from 1/10 to 6/10), and Verbal Fluency (from 1/10 to 6/10). However, Repetition and Writing/Spelling showed minimal changes. Conclusion: Script training showed a significant positive impact on the expressive language skills of individuals with Broca’s Aphasia. This suggests that script training can be a beneficial therapeutic intervention in the language rehabilitation of Broca’s Aphasia patients, particularly in enhancing Naming, Automatic Speech, and Verbal Fluency. Future studies should investigate long-term effects and the integration of script training with other therapeutic approaches.

Rehabilitation of a patient with verbal fluency difficulties after traumatic brain injury. Case study

Rehabilitation of a patient with verbal fluency difficulties after traumatic brain injury. Case study

Parental influences on the development of single and co-occurring difficulties in reading and arithmetic fluency

This study investigated how single and co-occurring difficulties in reading and arithmetic fluency developed among Finnish children across Grades 1–9 (N = 2151). Latent profile analysis among 391 children who had reading and/or arithmetic fluency difficulties in Grade 9 revealed profiles that followed three distinct patterns: reading difficulties (N = 121), mathematical difficulties (N = 94), and comorbid difficulties (N = 176). The profiles and typical performers were compared on parental reading and mathematical difficulties, parental education, the early home learning environment, and parental assistance with school homework across Grades 1–9. Results showed that although parents whose children had difficulties provided them with domain-specific support across all grades, the amount of support gradually declined and the performance gap between the profiles increased.

Communication disorders in the correctional system: a systematic review.

Good communication is essential for resolving social conflicts, especially in closed communities such as prisons. When communication is interrupted by factors such as hearing loss or difficulties in coordination, voice, language, fluency, or disruption of any of the biological systems required to communicate, Human Communication Disorders can appear. This review aimed to identify the most prevalent communication disorders amongst prison inmates. Systematic review through databases of studies that analyze individual inmates with communication disorders over the last 38 years. After reading the titles and abstracts and applying the eligibility criteria, 25 articles were selected and included in the final review. A sample of 2,188 individuals was evaluated, two studies were conducted with a female population only, while twelve studied exclusively males, and 11 articles had a mixed population. All the studies included evaluated language and communication disorders in general, with language impairment being more prevalent There are no English language studies evaluating language and communication disorders in incarcerated individuals from African countries, Latin America or Asia. Inmates have a high prevalence of language and communication disorders, and thus end up being more vulnerable within the prison system. Speech therapists are important members of the legal workforce and improve the health, well-being and participation of people in contact with or at risk of contact with the judicial system through the prevention, early detection, assessment and treatment of communication disorders.

Heterogeneity in children at risk of math learning difficulties.

This study recruited 428 Singaporean children at risk of math learning difficulties (MLD; Mage = 83.9 months, SDage = 4.35 months; 41% female). Using a factor mixture model that considered both quantitative and qualitative differences in math ability, two qualitatively different groups were identified: one with generalized difficulties across different math skills and the other with more focal difficulties in arithmetic fluency. Reading, working memory capacity, and numeracy (number line estimation skills and numerical discrimination) uniquely explained group membership. Children within each group differed in the extent of difficulties they exhibited, with numeracy variables differentially contributing to math ability in each group. Findings speak against a dimensional view of MLD and underscore the conceptual limitations of using basic numeracy performance to profile learning difficulties.

Early oral language precursors of different types of reading difficulties in a consistent orthography

The present longitudinal study examined whether early oral language skills of Greek-speaking children assessed in grade 1 can predict the type of reading difficulties (RD) in grade 2. Sixty-six typically developing (TD) children and eighty-seven children with RD were assessed on phonological awareness (PA), morphological awareness (MA), rapid automatized naming (RAN), and vocabulary in the mid of grade 1. Children were classified in the two groups based on whether they scored consistently low (below the 25th percentile) or typically (above the 25th percentile) on standardized measures of text-reading fluency and reading comprehension at the end of grade 1 and the beginning of grade 2. Next, children with RD were assigned to two subgroups: the first group included children (N = 28) with predominantly reading fluency difficulties (RFD) and the second group included children (N = 59) with single reading comprehension difficulties (RCD). A series of binomial logistic regressions showed that children’s classification in an RD group than a TD group was predicted by PA, RAN, and vocabulary achievement. Subsequent multinomial logistic regressions indicated that vocabulary, PA, and MA predicted children’s classification in the RCD subgroup more than in the TD group. Furthermore, lower PA levels and higher RAN score predicted the classification of children in the RFD group than in the RCD or the TD group. These findings highlight the contribution of early oral language assessment to the identification of children with RD and specific types of RD. Theoretical implications for the role of oral language in reading will be discussed as well as practical implications for implementing customized interventions to match children’s educational needs on specific oral language deficits.

Reading Difficulties Identification: A Comparison of Neural Networks, Linear, and Mixture Models

ABSTRACT Purpose We aim to identify the most accurate model for predicting adolescent (Grade 9) reading difficulties (RD) in reading fluency and reading comprehension using 17 kindergarten-age variables. Three models (neural networks, linear, and mixture) were compared based on their accuracy in predicting RD. We also examined whether the same or a different set of kindergarten-age factors emerge as the strongest predictors of reading fluency and comprehension difficulties across the models. Method RD were identified in a Finnish sample (N ≈ 2,000) based on Grade 9 difficulties in reading fluency and reading comprehension. The predictors assessed in kindergarten included gender, parental factors (e.g., parental RD, education level), cognitive skills (e.g., phonological awareness, RAN), home literacy environment, and task-avoidant behavior. Results The results suggested that the neural networks model is the most accurate method, as compared to the linear and mixture models or their combination, for the early prediction of adolescent reading fluency and reading comprehension difficulties. The three models elicited rather similar results regarding the predictors, highlighting the importance of RAN, letter knowledge, vocabulary, reading words, number counting, gender, and maternal education. Conclusion The results suggest that neural networks have strong promise in the field of reading research for the early identification of RD.

Developing a Reading Comprehension Support Program for Primary School Students with Specific Learning Disabilities

Specific learning disabilities (SLD) is a general term referring to a heterogeneous group of disorders displayed by individuals with special needs. SLD refers to disorders in reading, writing and mathematics. A large proportion of students with SLD need support in reading as well as in reading comprehension skills, an important component and ultimate goal of reading. In this direction, this study aimed to develop the content of a reading comprehension program for second, third and fourth grade students with SLD. Designed as phenomenology which is a qualitative research approach, this study used semi-structured interview, observation, assessment tool administration, literature review and document analysis. Teachers reported that students with SLD have difficulties in reading, writing, reading fluency and reading comprehension; they lack self-confidence and need to be educated in special learning environments; they need support in Turkish and mathematics classes and a reading comprehension program is necessary for them. It was identified that expository and narrative texts and poems were used in primary school programs and some reading comprehension skills were acquired. There were two acquisitions related to reading comprehension in the SLD support program without any specifications as to how these should be taught and what content should be used. This study was limited to interviews conducted with five teachers and observations with 14 students with SLD and eight students with typical development. Although the studies on students with SLD have increased in Turkey in recent years, support programs that can be used at different education levels to improve reading, reading comprehension, writing and math skills for students with SLD are still limited. The program developed within the scope of this research was developed as printed material. Further studies can be planned to use the program in technological platforms by using tablets, computers, etc.

The Effects of Reading Fluency Intervention via Tele-practice Parent Coaching on Parent’s Intervention Strategies and the Reading Fluency Skills of Children with Cochlear Implants

Objectives: The purpose of this study was to investigate the effectiveness of tele-practice parent coaching on parents’ intervention strategies and the reading fluency skills of children with cochlear implants (CIs).Methods: Five dyads of mother and child with CIs participated in this study. Five Korean second graders with cochlear implants participated in reading fluency tasks individually. All of them had reading fluency difficulties. We examined the efficacy of tele-practice parent coaching program for children with CIs by employing a pretest-posttest-maintenance design.Results: The parents demonstrated increases in their use of each reading intervention strategies after parent-coaching instruction. Post and maintenance of intervention strategies use in the home was sustained; indicating that parent coaching routines are effective to achieve maximal outcomes. All children demonstrated gains in their use of reading fluency skills.Conclusion: The results show that the parent coaching delivered through tele-practice had positive effects on parents’ learning behaviors and the reading fluency of children with CIs. This study provides useful information for developing parent coaching programs in terms of the reading fluency skills of children with CIs. Thus, the implementation of developing parent programs in the field of communication disorders is suggested.

Verbal fluency difficulties in aphasia: A combination of lexical and executive control deficits.

BackgroundVerbal fluency tasks are routinely used in clinical assessment and research studies of aphasia. People with aphasia produce fewer items in verbal fluency tasks. It remains unclear if their output is limited solely by their lexical difficulties and/or has a basis in their executive control abilities. Recent research has illustrated that detailed characterization of verbal fluency performance using temporal characteristics of words retrieved, clustering and switching, and pause durations, along with separate measures of executive control stands to inform our understanding of the lexical and cognitive underpinnings of verbal fluency in aphasia.AimsTo determine the locus of the verbal fluency difficulties in aphasia, we compared semantic and letter fluency trials between people with aphasia and healthy control participants using a wide range of variables to capture the performance between the two groups. The groups were also tested on separate measures of executive control to determine the relationship amongst these tasks and fluency performance.Methods & ProceduresSemantic (animal) and letter (F, A, S) fluency data for 60s trials were collected from 14 people with aphasia (PWA) and 24 healthy adult controls (HC). Variables, such as number of correct responses, clustering and switching analyses, were performed along with temporal measures of the retrieved words (response latencies) and pause durations. Participants performed executive control tasks to measure inhibitory control, mental‐set shifting and memory span.Outcomes & ResultsCompared with HC, PWA produced fewer correct responses, showed greater difficulty with the letter fluency condition, were slower in getting started with the trials, showed slower retrieval times as noted in within‐ and between‐cluster pause durations, and switched less often. Despite these retrieval difficulties, PWA showed a similar decline in the rate of recall to HC, and had similar cluster size. Executive control measures correlated primarily with the letter fluency variables: mostly for PWA and in one instance for HC.Conclusions & ImplicationsPoorer performance for PWA is a combination of difficulties in both the lexical and executive components of the verbal fluency task. Our findings highlight the importance of detailed characterization of fluency performance in deciphering the underlying mechanism of retrieval difficulties in aphasia, and illustrate the importance of using letter fluency trials to tap into executive control processes.WHAT THIS PAPER ADDSWhat is already known on the subject PWA typically show impaired performance in verbal fluency tasks. It is debated whether this impaired performance is a result of their lexical difficulties or executive control difficulties, or a combination of both. This debate continues because previous studies have mostly used semantic fluency condition without including letter fluency condition; used a limited range of variables (e.g., number of correct responses); and not included separate executive control measures to explain the performance pattern in aphasia. This research addresses these outstanding issues to determine the specific contribution of lexical and executive control processes in verbal fluency in aphasia by including: both semantic and letter fluency conditions; a wide range of variables to identify the relative contribution of lexical and executive control mechanisms; and independent measures of executive control. What this paper adds to existing knowledge Using the multidimensional analysis approach for verbal fluency performance from both semantic and letter fluency conditions, this is the first study to systematically demonstrate that PWA had difficulties in both lexical and executive control components of the task. At the individual level, PWA had greater difficulty on the letter fluency condition compared with semantic fluency. We observed significant correlations between the executive control measures and verbal fluency measures primarily for the letter fluency condition. This research makes a significant contribution to our understanding of lexical and executive control aspects in word production in aphasia. What are the potential or actual clinical implications of this work? From a clinical perspective, this research highlights the importance of using a full range of verbal fluency and executive control measures to tap into the lexical as well as executive control abilities of PWA, and also the utility of using letter fluency to tap into the executive control processes in PWA.

Parallel age-related cognitive effects in autism: A cross-sectional replication study.

Findings on age‐related cognitive effects in autism in adulthood are inconsistent across studies. As these studies substantially differ in their methodology, replication studies are needed. In this replication study frequentist (i.e., null‐hypothesis significance testing), and Bayesian statistics were used to investigate the hypothesis that in autistic adults compared to non‐autistic adults mostly parallel, but also protective age‐related cognitive effects can be observed. Participants were 88 autistic adults, and 88 non‐autistic matched comparisons (age range: 30–89 years, mean age: 55 years). Cognitive measures were administered on the following six domains: verbal memory, visual memory, working memory, Theory of Mind (ToM), verbal fluency, and processing speed, and self‐reported cognitive failures. Non‐autistic adults outperformed autistic adults on ToM, verbal fluency, and verbal memory, but only the first two were confirmed with Bayesian replication analyses. Also, more cognitive failures were reported by autistic adults. No interactions between group and age were observed, suggesting a parallel age‐related effect on all cognitive domains. In sum, previously observed difficulties in ToM and verbal fluency were replicated which seem to persist at older age. Previously reported parallel age‐related cognitive patterns were replicated, yet no evidence for protective age‐related patterns was found.Lay summaryWe investigated whether our previous findings on cognitive aging in autism could be confirmed in a new study measuring the cognitive effects of age in autistic and non‐autistic adults. As expected, tasks that younger autistic adults had difficulties with (theory of mind, fluency) were also difficult for older autistic adults, and the effect of age itself was similar in autistic and non‐autistic adults. Unexpectedly, we observed no protective effects (less cognitive aging) in autism.

Apathy and actions- another consideration when theorizing about embodied nature of language in Parkinson's disease

Objectives Individuals with Parkinson's disease (PD) have difficulty processing actions or verbs relative to nouns. Verb difficulties are thought to represent the coupling of language and motor networks. However, those with PD also frequently experience apathy. The overlap between apathy and action language difficulties is to date unexplored. Furthermore, whether verb/action fluency difficulty represents verb degradation (semantic/conceptual) or a selective lexical retrieval difficulty has not been determined.Methods In the current study, 20 individuals with PD without dementia completed cued action (verb) and animal (noun) fluency tasks in addition to assessments of apathy, cognition, and motor functioning.Results Individuals who exhibited impairments on action and animal fluency improved around 50% with the provision of cueing. The degree to which action fluency improved with cueing was correlated with behavioral/initiation apathy (rs=.56) as well as motor dysfunction (rs=-.57), while no similar relationship was found between those factors and nouns.Conclusions These findings suggest that impaired retrieval of actions and nouns are present in PD, but may have different underlying neuropsychological underpinnings. This provides preliminary support for grounded cognition models, which suggest the brain organizes information around motor, perceptual, and other networks.MESH terms Parkinson Disease, Neurocognitive Disorders, Apathy, Language Disorders, Neuropsychological Tests, Cognition