Saffron Flowers Research Articles

Artificial intelligence-based smart agricultural systems for saffron cultivation with integration of Unmanned Aerial Vehicle imagery and deep learning approaches

This paper presents an integrated Unmanned Aerial Vehicle (UAV) imagery system and artificial intelligence-based smart farming for saffron cultivation. This work is about monitoring the growth of saffron flowers through UAV imagery every week or month during the pre-harvesting time while the percentage of the covered area by leaf and saffron flowers is calculated. This is crucial for predicting saffron growing areas over cultivated regions. From the vertical viewing of UAV imagery from above, it is problematic from the bird’s eye perspective to identify the particular saffron-growing areas of things, so the multi-class classification of flowers (subjects) recognition system is proposed. So, the implementation of this work is divided into four phases. The first two phases (Phase 1 and Phase 2) are about the algorithms for Saffron growing region detections and predictions using the modified You Only Look Once (YOLO) higher version model followed by statistical analysis based region corner detections. The outcomes of the first two phases are used to form a database of saffron flowers with different scales, orientations, and deformations. This is further used to build a two-class classification model in the third phase (Phase 3) that discriminates saffron vs. non-saffron flowers. In the fourth phase, the two-class classification model is extended to a multi-class flower recognition model for recognizing 900 flower images database available in the largest social media website dedicated exclusively to gardening in the Phase 4. Extensive experiments are conducted, and the performances are compared with some existing state-of-the-art methods that show the superiority of the proposed system.

Determination of Saffron Flower Metabolites by Near-Infrared Spectroscopy for Quality Control

Determination of Saffron Flower Metabolites by Near-Infrared Spectroscopy for Quality Control

Determination of Anthocyanin Levels in Saffron Flower (Crocus sativus L) Infusion with Differential pH Method

Determination of Anthocyanin Levels in Saffron Flower (Crocus sativus L) Infusion with Differential pH Method

The subsurface application of pistachio waste compost and foliar spraying of organic matter can induce the flower yield and the quality of saffron (Crocus sativus L.) corms affected by restricted nutrient conditions

Correct use of organic waste in the form of composting can play a constructive role in reducing environmental pollution and increasing saffron sustainable production. Recently, pistachio waste compost has been considered as a soil conditioner, especially in arid and semi-arid areas. Along with improving the organic structure, foliar application of amino acids through the recommendation of reputable companies is another sustainable solution that can further strengthen the relationship between trade and agriculture. The current study was conducted in Anbari Agricultural Seeds Company, Mashhad, Iran during 2019-2021. The experiment was performed with three replicates based on a randomized complete block design arranged in factorial-split including 12 main plots [Organic fertilizer (control, pistachio compost (P), wheat straw (W), cow manure (M), P+W, and P+M) × Foliar spraying (control and 2 L. ha−1 DRIN: a commercial organic compound)] and 2 sub-plots (first and second sampling). The minimum number of saffron flowers and stigma weight were observed under no-organic fertilizer; while all organic sources led to increase these traits. The values increased by 27% and 31%, respectively, resulting pistachio compost compared to control treatment. Applying organic sources resulted in a higher crocin and safranal. At the same time, foliar spraying had a significant effect in increasing crocin and safranal concentrations. Organic fertilizers and foliar spraying caused a significant effect in terms of N, P, and K concentration in daughter corms. when control treatment was considered, foliar spraying increased sucrose by 24% compared to non-spraying. Furthermore, sucrose content was recorded to be improved following all organic amendments. Similar responses were observed regarding arginine, glutamic acid, alanine, and aspartic acid. Overall, applying pistachio compost concurrent with spraying of DRIN is recommended for saffron sustainable production, especially under nutrient-restricted conditions.

Detection of saffron adulteration by other plant species using SPME-GC-HRMS

Saffron, a spice obtained by drying the scars of saffron flowers (Crocus sativus L.), is by far the most valuable spice in the world, and, not surprisingly, it often becomes an object of adulteration. In this study, non-target screening of volatile compounds in 38 authentic saffron samples and 25 samples of plant materials, potential saffron adulterants (safflower, calendula, capsicum and turmeric) was performed using headspace solid-phase microextraction for sample extraction followed by gas chromatography coupled to high-resolution mass spectrometry (HS-SPME-GC-HRMS) for non-target volatiles screening. The chemometric analysis of generated data by principal component analysis (PCA) and partial least squares discriminative analysis (PLS-DA) showed good separation of authentic saffron from potential plant adulterants. Significant compounds (‘markers’) for each group of these plants, as well as for saffron were tentatively identified. The target screening of selected ‘markers’ in model admixtures enabled simple and reliable detection levels as low as 2% w/w of safflower, calendula, capsicum or turmeric present in saffron.

Antimicrobial and anti-aflatoxigenic activities of nanoemulsions based on Achillea millefolium and Crocus sativus flower extracts as green promising agents for food preservatives

BackgroundAlthough the mechanism of action of nanoemulsion is still unclear, the modern use of nanoemulsions made from natural extracts as antimicrobial and anti-aflatoxigenic agents represents a potential food preservation and a safety target.MethodsTwo natural nanoemulsion extracts of Crocus sativus (the saffron flower) and Achillea millefolium (the yarrow flower) were produced in the current study using a low-energy method that included carboxymethylcellulose and Arabic gum. The synthesized nanoemulsion was fully identified by different analytical methods. Detection of the volatile content was completed using GC-MS analysis. The antioxidant potential, and phenolic compounds content were analyzed in the extractions. The synthesized nanoemulsions were screened for their antimicrobial potential in addition to their anti-aflatoxigenic activity.ResultsThe droplet size of Saffron flowers was finer (121.64 ± 2.18 nm) than yarrow flowers (151.21 ± 1.12 nm). The Zeta potential measurements of the yarrow flower (-16.31 ± 2.54 mV) and the saffron flower (-18.55 ± 2.31 mV) both showed high stability, along with low PDI values (0.34–0.41). The nanoemulsion of yarrow flower revealed 51 compounds using gas chromatography-mass spectrometry (GCMS), with hexanal (16.25%), β-Pinene (7.41%), β-Myrcene (5.24%), D-Limonene (5.58%) and Caryophyllene (4.38%) being the most prevalent. Additionally, 31 compounds were detected in the saffron nanoemulsion, with D-limonene (4.89%), isophorone (12.29%), 4-oxy isophorone (8.19%), and safranal (44.84%) being the most abundant. Compared to the nanoemulsion of the yarrow flower, the saffron nanoemulsion had good antibacterial and antifungal activity. Saffron nanoemulsion inhibited total fungal growth by 69.64–71.90% in a simulated liquid medium and demonstrated the most significant decrease in aflatoxin production. Infected strawberry fruits coated with nanoemulsion extracts exhibited high antimicrobial activity in the form of saffron flower and yarrow flower extract nanoemulsions, which inhibited and/or controlled the growth of Aspergillus fungi. Due to this inhibition, the lag phase was noticeably prolonged, the cell load decreased, and the stability time increased.ConclusionThis study will contribute to expanding the theoretical research and utilization of nanoemulsions as green protective agents in agricultural and food industries for a promising protection from the invasion of some pathogenic bacteria and fungi.

Detection of botanical adulterants in saffron powder

Saffron is a unique spice obtained by drying stigmas of saffron flowers (Crocus sativus L.). Due to its high price, economically motivated adulteration occurs relatively often. The presented study aimed to develop an effective strategy for the detection of the following potential botanical adulterants used for a saffron substitution or dilution: safflower (Carthamus tinctorius L.), calendula (Calendula officinalis L.), turmeric (Curcuma longa L.), achiote (Bixa orellana L.), red pepper (Capsicum spp.), mountain arnica (Arnica montana L.), beet (Beta vulgaris L.), and pomegranate (Punica granatum L.). A non-target screening strategy based on ultra-high performance reverse-phase liquid chromatography coupled to tandem high-resolution mass spectrometry (UHPLC-HRMS/MS) was employed for the analysis of an aqueous ethanol plant extract. By using multivariate statistical methods, principal components analysis (PCA), and partial least squares discriminant analysis (PLS-DA), for processing the generated “chemical fingerprints,” metabolites unique to the investigated plants could be identified. To enable routine saffron authenticity control by target screening, an internal spectral database was developed; currently, it involves 82 unique markers. In this way, the detection addition as low as 1% (w/w) of all analyzed botanical adulterants in admixture with saffron was possible. The developed method was used to control 7 saffron powder samples from the Czech market, and none of the monitored adulterants were confirmed.

The influence of water-soluble secretions of saffron seed on the germination of seeds of soft winter wheat varieties

Due to climate change, there is a need to introduce new crops into agricultural production in Ukraine, among which Crocus sativus L., a herbaceous perennial tuberous plant, whose allopathic properties have been insufficiently studied, can take a leading place. Therefore, the aim of the study was to determine the effect of water-soluble flower secretions and their individual elements on the initial stages of seed germination of two winter durum wheat varieties (Vidrada and Koshova). In the course of the study, generally accepted methods were used: laboratory research, analysis, synthesis and statistical. It was found that water-soluble extracts of flowers of different states and elements of C. sativus flowers do not have a significant effect on the morphometric and quality parameters of wheat kernels during germination. Water-soluble secretions of flowers of different states have an inhibitory effect on the development of the root system; secretions of the bud and the bloomed flower inhibit the growth of coleoptiles. The effect of water-soluble secretions of sowing saffron flowers elements has varietal peculiarities: for winter wheat seedlings of Vidrada variety, the petals have a stimulating effect on the total length of roots and their weight; for seedlings of Koshova variety, the opposite effect is observed. The water-soluble secretions of petals and stamens have a stimulating effect on the coleoptile of Vidrada plants, and the water-soluble secretions of petals have a stimulating effect on Koshova seedlings. The correlation between the length of roots and coleoptile under the influence of watersoluble secretions of flowers of different states and their elements, as well as the index of allelopathy have varietal characteristics. The obtained scientific results will contribute to the development of agrotechnical measures for the cultivation of saffron in Ukraine, selection of winter wheat varieties for joint cultivation and use of plant residues as biological stimulants

Saffron Petal, an Edible Byproduct of Saffron, Alleviates Dextran Sulfate Sodium-Induced Colitis by Inhibiting Macrophage Activation and Regulating Gut Microbiota.

Saffron petal (SP) is an agricultural byproduct in the process of the crude drug saffron, accounting for 90% of the dry weight of saffron flowers. To promote the utilization of SP in the food and pharmaceutical industries, its anti-inflammatory activities were evaluated on LPS-activated RAW 264.7 cells and DSS-challenged colitic mice. The results indicated that the SP extract had a notable effect in alleviating the clinical manifestations of colitis, such as reduction in body weight, improvement in disease activity index, mitigation of colon shortening, and alleviation of colon tissue damage. Moreover, SP extract significantly suppressed macrophage infiltration and activation, evidenced by a decrease in colonic F4/80 macrophages and suppression of the transcription and secretion of colonic tumor necrosis factor-α (TNF-α), interleukin-1β (IL-1β), and interleukin-6 (IL-6) in DSS-challenged colitic mice. In vitro, SP extract also significantly suppressed nitric oxide production, COX-2 and iNOS expressions, and TNF-α and IL-1β transcription of activated RAW 264.7 cells. Network pharmacology-guided research identified that SP extract significantly downregulated Akt, p38, ERK, and JNK phosphorylation in vivo and in vitro. In parallel, SP extract also effectively corrected microbial dysbiosis by increasing the abundance of Bacteroides acidifaciens, Bacteroides vulgatus, Lactobacillus murinus, and Lactobacillus gasseri. These findings indicate that the effectiveness of SP extract in treating colitis is demonstrated by its ability to reduce macrophage activation, inhibit the PI3K/Akt and MAPK pathways, and regulate gut microbiota, suggesting that SP extract holds great potential as a therapeutic option for colitis.

Saffron Floral By-Products as Novel Sustainable Vegan Ingredients for the Functional and Nutritional Improvement of Traditional Wheat and Spelt Breads.

Saffron (Crocus sativus L.) is a traditional Mediterranean plant whose stigmas are used to obtain the most expensive spice in the world. Nevertheless, there is a lack of sustainability in its production, since, to produce 1 kg of saffron, about 350 kg of tepals are discarded. Therefore, this study aimed to develop wheat and spelt breads enriched with saffron floral by-products at a ratio of 0, 2.5, 5, and 10% (w/w), respectively, and to evaluate their nutritional, physicochemical, functional, and sensory properties, as well as the stability of antioxidant compounds during the in vitro digestion. The results revealed that the addition of saffron floral by-products, especially at 10%, increased the dietary fiber content by 25-30% of traditional wheat and spelt breads; improved their mineral content (270-290 mg/100 g for K, 90-95 mg/100 g for Ca, 40-50 mg/100 g for Mg, and 15-18 mg/100 g for Fe); changed their textural properties; and significantly enhanced the phenolic content and antioxidant ability (at 5 and 10%), which remained stable throughout the in vitro oral and gastrointestinal digestion processes. From a sensory point of view, the addition of saffron flowers modified the organoleptic properties of breads. Thus, these novel vegan enriched breads could exert beneficial effects on human health after their intake, making saffron floral by-products suitable and sustainable ingredients to develop new functional foods such as healthier alternative vegan bakery products.

Green Synthesis of Silver Nanoparticles Using Safran (Crocus sativus) Purple flower and Their Antimicrobial activity

Objective: In this research, CS-AgNPs were created, described, and their antibacterial activity assessed utilizing an inexpensive, simple, and ecologically friendly extraction approach from the waste saffron flower's purple flower parts. Methods: : In this study, silver nanoparticles (AgNPs) were synthesized quickly, cheaply, and environmentally friendly utilizing purple flower extract from saffron (Crocus sativus (CS)). For the explanation of the structure of silver nanoparticles synthesized with saffron flower extract (CS-AgNPs); UV-visible (UV-vis.) Spectrophotometer, Fourier Scanning Electron Microscope (FE-SEM), Scanning Electron Microscope (SEM), Electron Distributed X-rays (EDX), Fourier Transform Infrared Spectroscopy (FT-IR), X-Ray Characterized using Diffraction Diffractrometer (XRD), Transmission Electron Microscope (TEM), Zeta potential data. It was discovered that the UV-visible spectrum of the biologically produced silver nanoparticles generated at a maximal wavelength of 405.68 nm in the spectrum collected after 15 minutes. Furthermore, it was noted that the synthesized nanoparticles' UV spectrum, taken a month later, revealed the same wavelength and that the resulting nanoparticles were stable. CS-AgNPs' antimicrobial effects against gram-positive, gram-negative, and fungal pathogens were assessed employing the minimum inhibition concentration approach. Results: The generated CS-AgNPs were found to be active against both fungi and bacteria as a consequence. Conclusion: It turned out that even at very low concentrations, the antimicrobial activity of silver nanoparticles enhanced with decreasing size and had high antibacterial and anticandidal implementation.

957 Sustainable saffron flower extract, the next generation of oral care ingredients for gum health and beauty

957 Sustainable saffron flower extract, the next generation of oral care ingredients for gum health and beauty

Investigation of In Vitro Apocarotenoid Expression in Perianth of Saffron (Crocus sativus L.) Under Different Soil EC

Crocus sativus is a triploid sterile plant with red stigmas belonging to family of Iridaceae, and sub family Crocoideae. Crocin, picrocrocin, and safranal are three major carotenoid derivatives that are responsible for color, taste and specific aroma of Crocus. Saffron flowers are harvested manually and used as spice, dye or medicinal applications. The natural propagation rate of most geophytes including saffron is relatively low. An in vitro multiplication technique like micropropagation has been used for the propagation of saffron. To understand the efficiency of this alternative and study the molecular basis of apocarotenoid biosynthesis/accumulation, the RT-PCR method was performed on perianth explants that were cultured on MS medium to observe the level of expression of zeaxanthin cleavage dioxygenase (CsZCD) gene during stigma development, and also the impact of soil EC on its expression. The present study was conducted at Plant molecular and physiology Lab, Alzahra University, Tehran, Iran during 2011-2013. Stigma-like structures (SLSs) on calli were collected from immature perianth explants from floral buds of corms that were collected from Ghaen city, and compared to (Torbat-e Haidariye, Mardabad and Shahroud cities) for investigating the impact of different soil EC on CsZCD expression. The results indicated that CsZCD gene was highly expressed in fully developed red SLSs in perianth of cultured samples of Shahroud with the highest salinity. In this research, a close relationship between soil EC and second metabolites regulation is studied. Overall, these results will pave the way for understanding the molecular basis of apocarotenoid biosynthesis and other aspects of stigma development in C. sativus.

Alteration of Flower Yield and Phytochemical Compounds of Saffron (Crocus sativus L.) by Application of Different Light Qualities and Growth Regulators

Saffron is the world’s most coveted spicy plant that has medicinal value. Currently, due to diverse types of difficulties in growing this plant outdoor, the tendency to produce it indoor has been increased. Optimized indoor conditions for growing saffron plants is not fully determined so far. This study was conducted to investigate the interactive effects of two plant growth regulators (PGRs), including gibberellic acid (GA3) and γ-aminobutyric acid (GABA) and four light recipes, including white, monochromatic blue, monochromatic red, and a combination of 50% red and 50% blue on the flower yield and phytochemical components (such as crocin, picrocrocin and safranal) in stigmas of indoor-grown saffron. The results showed that exogenous GABA application and combined red and blue LED lights enhanced the performance of saffron flowers in terms of the number of flowers (up to 1.97 per corm) as well as the fresh and dry weight of flowers and stigmas. In saffron, the concentration of three major secondary metabolites is of great importance since it determines its commercial, pharmaceutical quality. GABA induced saffron’s chemical ingredients toward the phytochemicals safranal (up to 5.03%) and picrocrocin (up to 15.8%), while GA3 induced them toward the carotenoid pigment crocin (up to 25.1%). In conclusion, the application of GABA with a combination of red and blue lights enhanced the production of high-quality stigmas and positively affected the yield of flowers in saffron plants.

Histological Effects of Aqueous Extract of Saffron Flowers Crocus sativus on Ovaries and Oviduct of Females White Mice Mus musculus

The present study was conducted to identify the histological effects of the aqueous extract of saffron flower on ovaries and oviducts of the adult female mouse at doses of 15, 30 and 60 mg/kg of body weight (b.w.).for the periods 7,15 and 30 days, respectively and once a day. Behavioral changes were include the abnormal hyperactivity, irritability followed by introversion and reduction of motor activity, as well as loss of appetite for food and drinking water for several hours. The results showed histopathological changes of mice ovaries at a dose of 15 mg /kg of B.W. for the above periods a slight increase in primordial follicles, congestion of blood vessels, necrosis and degeneration. At a dose of 30 mg/kg. there was slight deposition of hyaline material, deposition of hemosiderin dye, congestion and increase of primordial follicles numbers, while at a dose of 60 mg/kg lymphatic cells infiltration were observed, with some ovarian stromal cells decaying. while the oviduct, and for the above periods changes included thickening of canal wall, endothelial cells degeneration and blood vessel congestion in the muscular area at a dose of 15 mg/kg, increased flattening of the mucosal folds also was observed. At a dose of 30mg /kg. an increased damage with increased blood vessels congestion, fibrosis of oviduct wall and degeneration of the external muscle layer of the oviduct at a dose of 60 mg /kg was obvious.

“Novel chitosan/alginate hydrogels as carriers of phenolic-enriched extracts from saffron floral by-products using natural deep eutectic solvents as green extraction media”

The current saffron production system is generating several hundreds of tons of tepal waste, because only stigmas are used for food. Consequently, the valorization of saffron floral by-products by developing stable functional ingredients could lead to the environmental impact minimization. Thus, the main aim of this study was to develop innovative green extraction processes from saffron floral by-products by using Natural Deep Eutectic Solvents (NaDES) and ultrasound-assisted extraction (UAE) as ecological extraction method. Response surface methodology was used to optimize process parameters. To improve the stability of the optimal extracts, they were incorporated into chitosan/alginate hydrogels, studying their water-uptake and water retention capacity and the total phenolic content (TPC) during the in vitro digestion. The results indicated that the optimal extraction, regarding total phenolic and flavonoid content, was achieved in 20 min, using 180 W ultrasound power and 90% of NaDES. The results of the DPPH assay revealed the potent antioxidant activity of saffron floral by-products. The chitosan/alginate hydrogels incorporating the as-obtained NaDES extracts showed favorable properties whereas the TPC remained stable under intestinal conditions. Therefore, NaDES combined with UAE was an efficient technique to isolate high added-value compounds from saffron flowers, succeeding also the valorization of discarded waste by using green and low-cost strategies. Furthermore, these novel hydrogels could be used as promising candidates for food or cosmetic applications.

ЯКІСНІ ПОКАЗНИКИ ТІСТА ДЛЯ ВАРЕНИКІВ ІЗ ВИКОРИСТАННЯМ ІМЕРЕТИНСЬКОГО ШАФРАНУ

The work deals with topical issues of solving the problems of expanding the assortment of flour dishes using natural sources of biologically active substances. Attention should be paid to the development of flour dishes of a functional orientation for further offering to consumers in catering establishments. One of the timely trends is the creation of dumplings -national flour dishes of Ukrainian cuisine, giving them a functional orientation through plant-based ingredients. Among such ingredi-ents, it is worth noting the biologically active complex of Imereti saffron, which contains vitamins, minerals, and dietary fibers. It is used as an antioxidant and has a therapeutic and preventive effect.It should also be noted that the research of ancient ethnic traditions of national dishes of various national ethnic groups is an urgent issue of our time. Therefore, adding edible flower dumplings to the dough recipe provides a new idea in the search for a combination of a traditional recipe and an innovative approachto creating new products.A study of the technological aspects of the use of domestic plant raw materials -dried marigold flowers (Imereti saffron) in the technology of dough for dumplings was conducted. Standard methods were used to determine product quality indicators. The characteristics of Imereti saffron as a promising ingredient for the production of fresh dough for dumplings are given.In the course of research, it was determined that the addition of Imereti saffron flowers for dumplings allows to modernize the organoleptic indicators of the quality of the products, has a positive effect on the chemical composition of the dough for dumplings, saturates the dough with macro-and micro-nutrients and dietary fibers necessary for the body. It was established experimentally that when adding Imereti saffron to the composition of the dough recipe for dumplings, it should be consideredrational to add flower powder in the amount of 1% to the mass of flour.The article describes the features of the technologyof making fresh dough for dumplings, developed a technological scheme for dumplings, and defined subsystem analysis in detail. Dried flowers of marigolds -Imereti saffron are a promising raw material, and the developed variant of fresh dough for dumplings can be recommended as part of the production program of the restaurant industry

Sugar metabolism mediates temperature-dependent flowering induction in saffron (Crocus sativus L.)

Saffron, which comprises the stigma of the Crocus sativus flower, is an important culinary and medicinal product. Saffron productivity depends on its flower formation, which is regulated by temperature. Inappropriate temperatures at the flowering stages result in flower atrophy and reduced or no flowering. The effect of temperature on saffron flowering was investigated using morphological studies coupled with transcriptomics and metabolic studies of meristem-enriched tissue collected from corms stored and grown at two different temperatures [high (25°C) and low (8°C)] during flowering. Morphological and histological studies suggested that high temperature, during the resting phase of the saffron corm life cycle, promotes flowering, whereas low temperature suppresses it. Low temperatures suppress flowering by inhibiting flower induction. Transcriptome analysis during the flower induction stage indicated that sugar metabolism genes were differentially regulated at different temperatures. Genes coding for starch and sucrose metabolism were enriched and differentially regulated at 25°C vs 8°C. High temperature promoted starch breakdown and soluble sugar formation, whereas low temperature had a vice-versa effect. Further, we identified that low-temperature mediated suppression of flowering involves the downregulation of the floral integrator gene CsatFT3. Exogenous sugar feeding, mainly sucrose, can rescue the low-temperature suppression of flower induction via upregulation of the CsatFT3 gene. Overall the results suggest that environmental temperatures alter sugar metabolism, which mediates temperature-dependent flower induction in saffron corms via regulation of the FT3 gene. These findings will aid in identifying temperature driven molecular factors controlling flowering in saffron.

Major Phytochemical Compounds, In Vitro Antioxidant, Antibacterial, and Antifungal Activities of Six Aqueous and Organic Extracts of Crocus sativus L. Flower Waste.

After being considered as a neglected product, agricultural waste is nowadays considered of paramount importance. It has become a source of many chemical compounds with industrial, pharmaceutical, and food applications. This study aims to evaluate the primary phytochemical content, the antioxidant properties, and the antimicrobial activities of different extracts of saffron flower waste (SFE) against bacterial and fungal strains involved in diverse pathologies in southern Morocco. Total phenolic and flavonoid contents were determined. The antioxidant potentials were assessed by DPPH, FRAP, and β-carotene assays. The antimicrobial activity against four bacteria and four fungi was also evaluated. The findings in terms of the relationships between phytochemical content and all activities were depicted by PCA analyses. SFEs contained large amounts of phenolic and flavonoid compounds that contribute to the significant antioxidant activities. Diethyl ether (DE), n-Butanol (n-B), and Ethyl acetate (EA) fractions respectively exhibited more DPPH scavenging capacity, FRAP reducing power, and β-carotene bleaching inhibition. DE and EA have a remarkable effect mainly against Staphylococcus aureus strain, compared to Listeriamonocytogenes, Escherichia coli and Klebsiella pneumoniae. Both SFEs showed antifungal antagonism towards key fungi species involved in post-harvest mold and crop yield losses. Botrytis cinerea was more susceptible than Fusarium solani, Penicillium expansum, and Penicillium digitatum. These results reveal new data about extracts obtained from SFE that could be a potential source of natural antioxidant and antimicrobial agents opening new possibilities for their applications in the food system as a natural preservative and a sustainable alternative to conventional ingredients.

Effect of Salicylic Acid and Pre-Cold Treatment on Flower Induction in Saffron.

Saffron is an important flowering plant, generally known as a golden condiment. The present study was performed to find the influence of different levels of SA and pre-cold treatment in the dormancy period of saffron and their effects on content enzyme activity. The results indicated that the SA2%, SA1%, and, pre-cold treatments took the shortest day to flowering. PAL enzyme activity was highest in pre-cold treatment. The higher total amount of protein was measured in the control, SA1% and SA2%. The highest amount of starch content and total soluble sugar was detected in pre-cold, SA2%, and control, respectively. No significant differences between treatments were present for CAT, PPO, GPX, and APX enzymes activity. There was a negative significant correlation between flowering time and some studied traits, i.e., starch and PAL activity. Applying SA and pre-cold treatment can induce saffron flowering and effect on pal enzyme activity and corm total protein, sugar, and starch content accordingly.