Flowering-related Genes Research Articles

Genome-wide investigation of MYB gene family in Areca catechu and potential roles of AcTDF in transgenic Arabidopsis.

MYB protein, a crucial transcription factor, holds crucial importance in plant growth, development, stress responses, and secondary metabolite regulation. While MYB proteins have been extensively studied, research on MYBs within the palm family, particularly in Areca catechu, remains limited. This study identified 259 MYB genes in Areca catechu, including 105 1R-MYBs, 150 R2R3-MYBs, 3 3R-MYBs, and 1 4R-MYBs. Physicochemical properties, collinearity, and gene structure of these genes were analyzed. The AcMYB is distributed across 16 chromosomes of A.catechu and has 119 and 195 homologs in Arabidopsis and rice, respectively. Cis-acting elements in the promoter region suggest roles in plant hormones, growth, development, and stress. R2R3-MYB genes were divided into eight groups based on tissue expression profiles. The flowering-related gene AcTDF is highly expressed in male flowers. Overexpression of AcTDF in Arabidopsis promotes early flowering, upregulates AtSOC1 and AtFUL, and enhances tolerance to drought and salt stress. These results provide valuable insights for the identification and analysis of the MYB gene family in Areca catechu and offer a basis for the subsequent verification of its related functions and the role and significance of its role in the evolution of palms.

Over-expression of SiADCL1 in Arabidopsis modulates folate and amino acid metabolism to impact on flowering time

Foxtail millet is a C4 crop rich in folate (FA). This study explores the roles of the 4-amino-4-deoxychorismate lyase (ADCL) – a member of the transaminase IV group of enzymes – in FA metabolism and conferred phenotypes. Phylogenetic comparisons identified diversity in the transaminase IV/ADCL gene family in the foxtail millet genome which was associated with genomic duplications. Molecular docking studies suggested that SiADCL1 bound most strongly to aminodeoxychorismate (ADC) and most likely had the highest catalytic activities. SiADCL1 which was highly expressed in roots, peduncles and flag leaves. Over-expression of SiADCL1 in Arabidopsis significantly increased total FA content (1.14–1.84 fold) and this was linked to a delayed flowering time. Metabolomic and transcriptomic characterization of the derived over-expression lines, found that FA promotes the change of methylation-related genes, ethylene synthesis, amino acid metabolism and flowering-related genes. This study revealed a potential gene coexpression network linked with FA and targeted key genes that could be exploited in foxtail millet breeding programs.

Multi-Omics Revealed Regulatory Mechanisms Underlying the Flowering of Ferula sinkiangensis across Three Dimensions.

Backgroud/Objectives: Ferula spp. is an essential crop in Central Asia with pronounced economic benefits governed by its flowering process. However, the mechanisms of the flowering phenotype remain unclear. Methods: In this study, using F. sinkiangensis as a model plant, we integrated transcriptome, proteome, and metabolome analyses to compare the multilayer differences in leaves and roots of plants with flowering and unflowering phenotypes. Results: We found that several variations in the transcriptome, proteome, and metabolome were closely associated with flowering. The Photosynthesis and Phenylpropanoid biosynthesis pathways in plants with the flowering phenotype were more active. Additionally, three flowering genes, named FL2-FL4, were upregulated in the leaves of flowering plants. Notably, six transcription factors were potentially responsible for regulating the expression of FL2-FL4 in the leaves to mediate flowering process of F. sinkiangensis. Moreover, genes relevant to Photosynthesis and Phenylpropanoid biosynthesis were also involved in regulating the expression of FL2-FL4 in flowering plants. Conclusions: The active regulation network together with Photosynthesis and Phenylpropanoid biosynthesis were essential for inducing the expression of flowering-related genes in leaves to promote the flowering process of F. sinkiangensis.

Identification of Genomic Regions Associated with Differences in Flowering Time and Inflorescence Architecture between Melastoma candidum and M. normale.

Understanding the genetic basis of species differences in flowering time and inflorescence architecture can shed light on speciation and molecular breeding. Melastoma shows rapid speciation, with about 100 species formed in the past few million years, and, meanwhile, possesses high ornamental values. Two largely sympatric and closely related species of this genus, M. candidum and M. normale, differ markedly in flowering time and flower number per inflorescence. Here, we constructed an F2 population between M. candidum and M. normale, and used extreme bulks for flowering time and flower number per inflorescence in this population to identify genomic regions underlying the two traits. We found high differentiation on nearly the whole chromosome 7 plus a few regions on other chromosomes between the two extreme bulks for flowering time. Large chromosomal inversions on chromosome 7 between the two species, which contain flowering-related genes, can explain recombinational suppression on the chromosome. We identified 1872 genes with one or more highly differentiated SNPs between the two bulks for flowering time, including CSTF77, FY, SPA3, CDF3, AGL8, AGL15, FHY1, COL9, CIB1, FKF1 and FAR1, known to be related to flowering. We also identified 680 genes with one or more highly differentiated SNPs between the two bulks for flower number per inflorescence, including PNF, FIL and LAS, knows to play important roles in inflorescence development. These large inversions on chromosome 7 prevent us from narrowing down the genomic region(s) associated with flowering time differences between the two species. Flower number per inflorescence in Melastoma appears to be controlled by multiple genes, without any gene of major effect. Our study indicates that large chromosomal inversions can hamper the identification of the genetic basis of important traits, and the inflorescence architecture of Melastoma species may have a complex genetic basis.

Research Progress on Photoperiod Gene Regulation of Heading Date in Rice.

Heading date is a critical physiological process in rice that is influenced by both genetic and environmental factors. The photoperiodic pathway is a primary regulatory mechanism for rice heading, with key florigen genes Hd3a (Heading date 3a) and RFT1 (RICE FLOWERING LOCUS T1) playing central roles. Upstream regulatory pathways, including Hd1 and Ehd1, also significantly impact this process. This review aims to provide a comprehensive examination of the localization, cloning, and functional roles of photoperiodic pathway-related genes in rice, and to explore the interactions among these genes as well as their pleiotropic effects on heading date. We systematically review recent advancements in the identification and functional analysis of genes involved in the photoperiodic pathway. We also discuss the molecular mechanisms underlying rice heading date variation and highlight the intricate interactions between key regulatory genes. Significant progress has been made in understanding the molecular mechanisms of heading date regulation through the cloning and functional analysis of photoperiod-regulating genes. However, the regulation of heading date remains complex, and many underlying mechanisms are not yet fully elucidated. This review consolidates current knowledge on the photoperiodic regulation of heading date in rice, emphasizing novel findings and gaps in the research. It highlights the need for further exploration of the interactions among flowering-related genes and their response to environmental signals. Despite advances, the full regulatory network of heading date remains unclear. Further research is needed to elucidate the intricate gene interactions, transcriptional and post-transcriptional regulatory mechanisms, and the role of epigenetic factors such as histone methylation in flowering time regulation. This review provides a detailed overview of the current understanding of photoperiodic pathway genes in rice, setting the stage for future research to address existing gaps and improve our knowledge of rice flowering regulation.

Gibberellic acid modulates the expression of flowering-related genes and the flower bud rate in apple (Malus domestica)

Gibberellic acid modulates the expression of flowering-related genes and the flower bud rate in apple (<i>Malus domestica</i>)

Characterization of the roles of MiSPL4a and MiSPL4b in flowering time and drought resistance in Arabidopsis

SQUAMOSA promoter-binding protein-like 3/4/5 (SPL3/4/5) genes are involved mainly in regulating plant flowering through the gibberellin and age pathways. In our previous study, two SPL4-like genes, MiSPL4a and MiSPL4b (MiSPL4a/b), were identified and analyzed in mango, and their highest expression levels were detected in flowers. However, the functions of MiSPL4a and MiSPL4b in mango remain unclear. In this study, bioinformatics, expression, function and interacting proteins were analyzed. The results revealed that MiSPL4a was highly expressed in leaves at the early stage of the flower induction period, while MiSPL4b increased the highest expression peak during the vegetative period. MiSPL4a/b genes were induced by drought treatment. Overexpression of MiSPL4a/b accelerated early flowering and increased the expression levels of several flowering-related genes, such as APETALA1 (AtAP1), FRUITFULL (AtFUL), and SUPPRESSOR OF OVEREXPRESSION OF CONSTANS1 (AtSOC1) in Arabidopsis thaliana. The MiSPL4a/b transgenic plants presented increased resistance to drought and abscisic acid (ABA) treatment, and the MiSPL4b transgenic plants were sensitive to prohexadione-calcium (Pro-Ca) treatment. In addition, MiSPL4a and MiSPL4b interact with MiSOC1, Mi14–3–3, and several stress-related proteins. In summary, these findings indicated that in transgenic Arabidopsis, MiSPL4a/b genes have the function of accelerating flowering and enhancing stress resistance.

H3K36 methyltransferase GhKMT3;1a and GhKMT3;2a promote flowering in upland cotton

BackgroundThe SET domain group (SDG) genes encode histone lysine methyltransferases, which regulate gene transcription by altering chromatin structure and play pivotal roles in plant flowering determination. However, few studies have investigated their role in the regulation of flowering in upland cotton.ResultsA total of 86 SDG genes were identified through genome-wide analysis in upland cotton (Gossypium hirsutum). These genes were unevenly distributed across 25 chromosomes. Cluster analysis revealed that the 86 GhSDGs were divided into seven main branches. RNA-seq data and qRT‒PCR analysis revealed that lysine methyltransferase 3 (KMT3) genes were expressed at high levels in stamens, pistils and other floral organs. Using virus-induced gene silencing (VIGS), functional characterization of GhKMT3;1a and GhKMT3;2a revealed that, compared with those of the controls, the GhKMT3;1a- and GhKMT3;2a-silenced plants exhibited later budding and flowering and lower plant heightwere shorter. In addition, the expression of flowering-related genes (GhAP1, GhSOC1 and GhFT) significantly decreased and the expression level of GhSVP significantly increased in the GhKMT3;1a- and GhKMT3;2a-silenced plants compared with the control plants.ConclusionA total of 86 SDG genes were identified in upland cotton, among which GhKMT3;1a and GhKMT3;2a might regulate flowering by affecting the expression of GhAP1, GhSOC1, GhFT and GhSVP. These findings will provide genetic resources for advanced molecular breeding in the future.

Refining flowering date enhances sesame yield independently of day-length

BackgroundThe transition from vegetative to reproductive growth is a key factor in yield maximization. Sesame (Sesamum indicum), an indeterminate short-day oilseed crop, is rapidly being introduced into new cultivation areas. Thus, decoding its flowering mechanism is necessary to facilitate adaptation to environmental conditions. In the current study, we uncover the effect of day-length on flowering and yield components using F2\\documentclass[12pt]{minimal} \\usepackage{amsmath} \\usepackage{wasysym} \\usepackage{amsfonts} \\usepackage{amssymb} \\usepackage{amsbsy} \\usepackage{mathrsfs} \\usepackage{upgreek} \\setlength{\\oddsidemargin}{-69pt} \\begin{document}$$_2$$\\end{document} populations segregating for previously identified quantitative trait loci (Si_DTF QTL) confirming these traits.ResultsGenerally, day-length affected all phenotypic traits, with short-day preceding days to flowering and reducing yield components. Interestingly, the average days to flowering required for yield maximization was 50 to 55 days, regardless of day-length. In addition, we found that Si_DTF QTL is more associated with seed-yield and yield components than with days to flowering. A bulk-segregation analysis was applied to identify additional QTL differing in allele frequencies between early and late flowering under both day-length conditions. Candidate genes mining within the identified major QTL intervals revealed two flowering-related genes with different expression levels between the parental lines, indicating their contribution to sesame flowering regulation.ConclusionsOur findings demonstrate the essential role of flowering date on yield components and will serve as a basis for future sesame breeding.

Phenotypic and genetic characterization of a near-isogenic line pair: insights into flowering time in chickpea

BackgroundCicer arietinum is a significant legume crop cultivated mainly in short-season environments, where early-flowering is a desirable trait to overcome terminal constraints. Despite its agricultural significance, the genetic control of flowering time in chickpea is not fully understood. In this study, we developed, phenotyped, re-sequenced and genetically characterized a pair of near-isogenic lines (NILs) with contrasting days to flowering to identify candidate gene variants potentially associated with flowering time.ResultsIn addition to days to flowering, noticeable differences in multiple shoot architecture traits were observed between the NILs. The resequencing data confirms that the NILs developed in this study serve as appropriate plant materials, effectively constraining genetic variation to specific regions and thereby establishing a valuable resource for future genetic and functional investigations in chickpea research. Leveraging bioinformatics tools and public genomic datasets, we identified homologs of flowering-related genes from Arabidopsis thaliana, including ELF3 and, for the first time in chickpea, MED16 and STO/BBX24, with variants among the NILs. Analysis of the allelic distribution of these genes revealed their preservation within chickpea diversity and their potential association with flowering time. Variants were also identified in members of the ERF and ARF gene families. Furthermore, in silico expression analysis was conducted elucidating their putative roles in flowering.ConclusionsWhile the gene CaELF3a is identified as a prominent candidate, this study also exposes new targets in chickpea, such as CaMED16b and LOC101499101 (BBX24-like), homologs of flowering-related genes in Arabidopsis, as well as ERF12 and ARF2. The in silico expression characterization and genetic variability analysis performed could contribute to their use as specific markers for chickpea breeding programs. This study lays the groundwork for future investigations utilizing this plant material, promising further insights into the complex mechanisms governing flowering time in chickpea.

Reduced CHH methylation levels reveal a critical role of aging pathway genes in Moso bamboo flowering

Moso bamboo holds significant economic importance in China, serving various purposes, such as food, material, ornamentation, and greenery. Despite its versatility, the occurrence of flowering in Moso bamboo poses a threat to bamboo forests, resulting in substantial losses. The underlying cause of bamboo flowering remains elusive. Dynamic fluctuations in DNA methylation govern the transcriptional levels of crucial genes pivotal for plant growth and development. In this study, we conducted comprehensive DNA methylation (by whole-genome bisulfite sequencing) and transcriptome (by RNA-seq) analyses on non-flowering leaves, flowering leaves, and spikelets of Moso bamboo. Our findings revealed a notable reduction in the overall DNA methylation level, particularly CHH methylation, from leaves to spikelets, influencing the expression of differentially regulated genes. Notably, we identified DNA methylation as a regulatory mechanism for numerous flowering-related genes, including SPLs, FT, and SOC1. Specifically, the SPL3f gene, a key regulator of the aging pathway, exhibited hypomethylation and a high expression level in spikelets. Conversely, SOC1c displayed transcriptional silencing attributed to hypermethylation in the CHH context in the leaves of non-flowering plants. DNA methylation may affect the flowering mechanism of Moso bamboo by regulating the expression of key genes. In summary, our results shed light on the dynamic changes in DNA methylation between leaves and spikelets, unraveling an important epigenetic modification mechanism for flowering in Moso bamboo.

DeepCBA: A deep learning framework for gene expression prediction in maize based on DNA sequences and chromatin interactions

Chromatin interactions create spatial proximity between distal regulatory elements and target genes in the genome, which has an important impact on gene expression, transcriptional regulation, and phenotypic traits. To date, several methods have been developed for predicting gene expression. However, existing methods do not take into consideration the effect of chromatin interactions on target gene expression, thus potentially reducing the accuracy of gene expression prediction and mining of important regulatory elements. In this study, we developed a highly accurate deep learning-based gene expression prediction model (DeepCBA) based on maize chromatin interaction data. Compared with existing models, DeepCBA exhibits higher accuracy in expression classification and expression value prediction. The average Pearson correlation coefficients (PCCs) for predicting gene expression using gene promoter proximal interactions, proximal-distal interactions, and both proximal and distal interactions were 0.818, 0.625, and 0.929, respectively, representing an increase of 0.357, 0.16, and 0.469 over the PCCs obtained with traditional methods that use only gene proximal sequences. Some important motifs were identified through DeepCBA; they were enriched in open chromatin regions and expression quantitative trait loci and showed clear tissue specificity. Importantly, experimental results for the maize flowering-related gene ZmRap2.7 and the tillering-related gene ZmTb1 demonstrated the feasibility of DeepCBA for exploration of regulatory elements that affect gene expression. Moreover, promoter editing and verification of two reported genes (ZmCLE7 and ZmVTE4) demonstrated the utility of DeepCBA for the precise design of gene expression and even for future intelligent breeding. DeepCBA is available at http://www.deepcba.com/ or http://124.220.197.196/.

Identification of superior haplotypes for flowering time in pigeonpea through candidate gene-based association study of a diverse minicore collection.

In current study candidate gene (261 genes) based association mapping on 144 pigeonpea accessions for flowering time and related traits and 29 MTAs producing eight superior haplotypes were identified. In the current study, we have conducted an association analysis for flowering-associated traits in a diverse pigeonpea mini-core collection comprising 144 accessions using the SNP data of 261 flowering-related genes. In total, 13,449 SNPs were detected in the current study, which ranged from 743 (ICP10228) to 1469 (ICP6668) among the individuals. The nucleotide diversity (0.28) and Watterson estimates (0.34) reflected substantial diversity, while Tajima's D (-0.70) indicated the abundance of rare alleles in the collection. A total of 29 marker trait associations (MTAs) were identified, among which 19 were unique to days to first flowering (DOF) and/or days to fifty percent flowering (DFF), 9 to plant height (PH), and 1 to determinate (Det) growth habit using 3years of phenotypic data. Among these MTAs, six were common to DOF and/or DFF, and four were common to DOF/DFF along with the PH, reflecting their pleiotropic action. These 29 MTAs spanned 25 genes, among which 10 genes clustered in the protein-protein network analysis, indicating their concerted involvement in floral induction. Furthermore, we identified eight haplotypes, four of which regulate late flowering, while the remaining four regulate early flowering using the MTAs. Interestingly, haplotypes conferring late flowering (H001, H002, and H008) were found to be taller, while those involved in early flowering (H003) were shorter in height. The expression pattern of these genes, as inferred from the transcriptome data, also underpinned their involvement in floral induction. The haplotypes identified will be highly useful to the pigeonpea breeding community for haplotype-based breeding.

Genome-wide evolutionary analysis of TKL_CTR1-DRK-2 gene family and functional characterization reveals that TaCTR1 positively regulates flowering time in wheat

BackgroundFlowering time has an important effect on regional adaptation and yields for crops. The tyrosine kinase-like (TKL) gene family is widely existed and participates in many biological processes in plants. Furthermore, only few TKLs have been characterized functions in controlling flowering time in wheat.ResultsHere, we report that TaCTR1, a tyrosine kinase-like (TKL) gene, regulates flowering time in wheat. Based on identification and evolutionary analysis of TKL_CTR1-DRK-2 subfamily in 15 plants, we proposed an evolutionary model for TaCTR1, suggesting that occurrence of some exon fusion events during evolution. The overexpression of TaCTR1 caused early flowering time in transgenic lines. Transcriptomics analysis enabled identification of mass differential expression genes including plant hormone (ET, ABA, IAA, BR) signaling, flavonoid biosynthesis, phenolamides and antioxidant, and flowering-related genes in TaCTR1 overexpression transgenic lines compared with WT plants. qRT–PCR results showed that the expression levels of ethylene (ET) signal-related genes (ETR, EIN, ERF) and flowering-related genes (FT, PPD1, CO, PRR, PHY) were altered in TaCTR1-overexpressing wheat compared with WT plants. Metabonomics analysis showed that flavonoid contents were altered.ConclusionsThus, the results show that TaCTR1 plays a positive role in controlling flowering time by activating various signaling pathways and regulating flowering-related genes, and will provide new insights on the mechanisms of wheat flowering regulation.

GmTCP40 Promotes Soybean Flowering under Long-Day Conditions by Binding to the GmAP1a Promoter and Upregulating Its Expression.

Soybean [Glycine max (L.) Merr.] is a short-day (SD) plant that is sensitive to photoperiod, which influences flowering, maturity, and even adaptation. TEOSINTE-BRANCHED1/CYCLOIDEA/PROLIFERATING CELL FACTOR (TCP) transcription factors have been shown to regulate photoperiodic flowering. However, the roles of TCPs in SD plants such as soybean, rice, and maize remain largely unknown. In this study, we cloned the GmTCP40 gene from soybean and investigated its expression pattern and function. Compared with wild-type (WT) plants, GmTCP40-overexpression plants flowered earlier under long-day (LD) conditions but not under SD conditions. Consistent with this, the overexpression lines showed upregulation of the flowering-related genes GmFT2a, GmFT2b, GmFT5a, GmFT6, GmAP1a, GmAP1b, GmAP1c, GmSOC1a, GmSOC1b, GmFULa, and GmAG under LD conditions. Further investigation revealed that GmTCP40 binds to the GmAP1a promoter and promotes its expression. Analysis of the GmTCP40 haplotypes and phenotypes of soybean accessions demonstrated that one GmTCP40 haplotype (Hap6) may contribute to delayed flowering at low latitudes. Taken together, our findings provide preliminary insights into the regulation of flowering time by GmTCP40 while laying a foundation for future research on other members of the GmTCP family and for efforts to enhance soybean adaptability.

Comprehensive Analyses of Four PhNF-YC Genes from Petunia hybrida and Impacts on Flowering Time.

Nuclear Factor Y (NF-Y) is a class of heterotrimeric transcription factors composed of three subunits: NF-A, NF-YB, and NF-YC. NF-YC family members play crucial roles in various developmental processes, particularly in the regulation of flowering time. However, their functions in petunia remain poorly understood. In this study, we isolated four PhNF-YC genes from petunia and confirmed their subcellular localization in both the nucleus and cytoplasm. We analyzed the transcript abundance of all four PhNF-YC genes and found that PhNF-YC2 and PhNF-YC4 were highly expressed in apical buds and leaves, with their transcript levels decreasing before flower bud differentiation. Silencing PhNF-YC2 using VIGS resulted in a delayed flowering time and reduced chlorophyll content, while PhNF-YC4-silenced plants only exhibited a delayed flowering time. Furthermore, we detected the transcript abundance of flowering-related genes involved in different signaling pathways and found that PhCO, PhGI, PhFBP21, PhGA20ox4, and PhSPL9b were regulated by both PhNF-YC2 and PhNF-YC4. Additionally, the transcript abundance of PhSPL2, PhSPL3, and PhSPL4 increased only in PhNF-YC2-silenced plants. Overall, these results provide evidence that PhNF-YC2 and PhNF-YC4 negatively regulate flowering time in petunia by modulating a series of flowering-related genes.

Exogenous hydrogen sulphide promotes plant flowering through the Arabidopsis splicing factor AtU2AF65a.

Alternative splicing (AS) is an important regulatory mode at the post-transcriptional level, through which many flowering genes regulate floral transition by producing multiple transcripts, and splicing factors have essential roles in this process. Hydrogen sulphide (H2S) is a newly found gasotransmitter that has critical physiological roles in plants, and one of its potential modes of action is via persulfidation of target proteins at specific cysteine sites. Previously, it has been shown that both the splicing factor AtU2AF65a and H2S are involved in the regulation of plant flowering. This study found that, in Arabidopsis, the promoting effect of H2S on flowering was abolished in atu2af65a-4 mutants. Transcriptome analyses showed that when AtU2AF65a contained mutations, the regulatory function of H2S during the AS of many flowering genes (including SPA1, LUH, LUG and MAF3) was inhibited. The persulfidation assay showed that AtU2AF65a can be persulfidated by H2S, and the RNA immunoprecipitation data indicated that H2S could alter the binding affinity of AtU2AF65a to the precursor messenger RNA of the above-mentioned flowering genes. Overall, our results suggest that H2S may regulate the AS of flowering-related genes through persulfidation of splicing factor AtU2AF65a and thus lead to early flowering in plants.

Flowering and Runnering of Seasonal Strawberry under Different Photoperiods Are Affected by Intensity of Supplemental or Night-Interrupting Blue Light

The strawberry (Fragaria × ananassa Duch.) “Sulhyang” is a typical seasonal flowering (SF) strawberry that produces flower buds in day lengths shorter than a critical limit (variable, but often defined as &lt;12 h). There is a trade-off between photoperiod-controlled flowering and gibberellin (GA) signaling pathway-mediated runnering. Some related genes (such as CO, FT1, SOC1, and TFL1) participating in light signaling and circadian rhythm in plants are altered under blue light (BL). Sugars for flowering and runnering are mainly produced by photosynthetic carbon assimilation. The intensity of light could affect photosynthesis, thereby regulating flowering and runnering. Here, we investigated the effect of the intensity of supplemental blue light (S-BL) or night-interrupting blue light (NI-BL) in photoperiodic flowering and runnering regulation by applying 4 h of S-BL or NI-BL with either 0, 10, 20, 30, or 40 μmol·m−2·s−1 photosynthetic photon flux density (PPFD) in a 10 h short-day (SD10) (SD10 + S-BL4 or + NI-BL4 (0, 10, 20, 30, or 40)) or 14 h long-day (LD14) conditions (LD14 + S-BL4 or + NI-BL4 (0, 10, 20, 30, or 40)). Approximately 45 days after the photoperiodic light treatment, generally, whether S-BL or NI-BL, BL (20) was the most promotive in runnering, leading to more runners in both the LD and SD conditions. For flowering, except the treatment LD14 + S-BL, BL (20) was still the key light, either from BL (20) or BL (40), promoting flowering, especially when BL acted as the night-interrupting light, regardless of the photoperiod. At the harvest stage, larger numbers of inflorescences and runners were observed in the LD14 + NI-BL4 treatment, and the most were observed in the LD14 + NI-BL (20). Moreover, the SD10 + NI-BL4 was slightly inferior to the LD14 + NI-BL4 in increasing the numbers of inflorescences and runners, but it caused earlier flowering. Additionally, the circadian rhythm expression of flowering-related genes was affected differently by the S-BL and NI-BL. After the application of BL in LD conditions, the expression of an LD-specific floral activator FaFT1 was stimulated, while that of a flowering suppressor FaTFL1 was inhibited, resetting the balance of expression between these two opposite flowering regulators. The SD runnering was caused by BL in non-runnering SD conditions associated with the stimulation of two key genes that regulate runner formation in the GA pathway, FaGRAS32 and FaGA20ox4. In addition, the positive effects of BL on enhancing photosynthesis and carbohydrate production also provided an abundant energy supply for the flowering and runnering processes.

New Advances in the Study of Regulation of Tomato Flowering-Related Genes Using Biotechnological Approaches

The tomato is a convenient object for studying reproductive processes, which has become a classic. Such complex processes as flowering and fruit setting require an understanding of the fundamental principles of molecular interaction, the structures of genes and proteins, the construction of signaling pathways for transcription regulation, including the synchronous actions of cis-regulatory elements (promoter and enhancer), trans-regulatory elements (transcription factors and regulatory RNAs), and transposable elements and epigenetic regulators (DNA methylation and acetylation, chromatin structure). Here, we discuss the current state of research on tomatoes (2017–2023) devoted to studying the function of genes that regulate flowering and signal regulation systems using genome-editing technologies, RNA interference gene silencing, and gene overexpression, including heterologous expression. Although the central candidate genes for these regulatory components have been identified, a complete picture of their relationship has yet to be formed. Therefore, this review summarizes the latest achievements related to studying the processes of flowering and fruit set. This work attempts to display the gene interaction scheme to better understand the events under consideration.

A graph-based pan-genome of Brassica oleracea provides new insights into its domestication and morphotype diversification

The domestication of Brassica oleracea has resulted in diverse morphological types with distinct patterns of organ development. Here we report a graph-based pan-genome of B. oleracea constructed from high-quality genome assemblies of different morphotypes. The pan-genome harbors over 200 structural variant hotspot regions enriched in auxin- and flowering-related genes. Population genomic analyses revealed that early domestication of B. oleracea focused on leaf or stem development. Gene flows resulting from agricultural practices and variety improvement were detected among different morphotypes. Selective-sweep and pan-genome analyses identified an auxin-responsive small auxin up-regulated RNA gene and a CLAVATA3/ESR-RELATED family gene as crucial players in leaf–stem differentiation during the early stage of B. oleracea domestication and the BoKAN1 gene as instrumental in shaping the leafy heads of cabbage and Brussels sprouts. Our pan-genome and functional analyses further revealed that variations in the BoFLC2 gene play key roles in the divergence of vernalization and flowering characteristics among different morphotypes, and variations in the first intron of BoFLC3 are involved in fine-tuning the flowering process in cauliflower. This study provides a comprehensive understanding of the pan-genome of B. oleracea and sheds light on the domestication and differential organ development of this globally important crop species.