Mango Flowering Research Articles

Effects of Pollen Germination and Pollen Tube Growth under Different Temperature Stresses in Mango (Mangifera indica L.) by Metabolome.

The dramatic temperature fluctuations spurred by global warming and the accompanying extreme weather events inhibit mango growth and threaten mango productivity. Particularly, mango flowering is highly sensitive to temperature changes. The mango fruit setting rate was significantly positively correlated with pollen activity, and pollen activity was regulated by different metabolites. In this study, the in vitro pollen of two mango varieties ('Renong No.1' and 'Jinhuang'), in which sensitivity to temperature differed significantly, were subjected to different temperature stresses (15 °C, 25 °C and 35 °C), and their metabolomics were analyzed. The present results showed that 775 differential metabolites were screened by liquid chromatography-mass spectrometry and divided into 12 categories. The two varieties had significant differences in metabolite expression under different temperature stresses and the effect of low temperature on 'Renong No.1' mainly focused on amino acid metabolism, while the effect on 'Jinhuang' was mainly related to glycolysis. However, under the 35 °C temperature stress, 'Renong No.1' responded by redistributing riboflavin and betaine in vivo and the most obvious metabolic pathway of 'Jinhuang' enrichment was pyrimidine metabolism, which had undergone complex main body formation and extensive regulatory processes. The changes of metabolites of different varieties under low temperature and high temperature stress were different. Among them, flavonoids or flavonoid derivatives were included in class A (216 metabolites), C (163 metabolites) and D (233 metabolites) metabolites, indicating that flavonoid metabolites had an obvious regulatory effect on mango pollen metabolism under different temperature stress. The present results provide valuable information for reproductive biology studies and breeding in mango, in particular, the selection and breeding of the most suitable varieties for different production areas.

Genome-wide analysis of the MADS-box gene family in mango and ectopic expression of MiMADS77 in Arabidopsis results in early flowering

Mango (Mangifera indica L.) is an important tropical fruit, and timely flowering and fruit setting are very important for mango production. The MADS-box gene family is involved in the regulation of flower induction, floral organ specification, and fruit development in plants. The identification and analysis of the MADS-box gene family can lay a foundation for the study of the molecular mechanism of flowering and fruit development in mango. In this study, 119 MiMADS-box genes were identified on the basis of genome and transcriptome data. Phylogenetic analysis revealed that these genes can be divided into two classes. Forty-one type I proteins were further divided into three subfamilies, and seventy-eight type II proteins were further classified into eleven subfamilies. Several pairs of alternative splicing genes were found, especially in the SUPPRESSOR OF OVEREXPRESSION OF CONSTANS 1 (SOC1) subfamily. The MiMADS-box genes were distributed on 18 out of the 20 mango chromosomes. Cis-element analysis revealed many light-, stress-, and hormone-responsive elements in the promoter regions of the mango MiMADS-box genes. Expression pattern analysis revealed that these genes were differentially expressed in multiple tissues in mango. The highly expressed MiMADS77 was subsequently transformed into Arabidopsis, resulting in significant early flowering and abnormal floral organs. Yeast two-hybrid (Y2H) assays revealed that MiMADS77 interacts with several MiMADS-box proteins. In addition, we constructed a preliminary flowering regulatory network of MADS-box genes in mango on the basis of related studies. These results suggest that MiMADS77 genes may be involved in flowering regulation of mango.

Functional characterization of MiFTs implicated in early flowering and stress resistances of mango

Phosphatidylethanolamine binding protein (PEBP) family plays important roles in multiple developmental processes in plants. In this study, a total of 11 PEBP gene family members were identified from the mango (Mangifera indica L.) genome, and these proteins were divided into three subfamilies based on their phylogenetic relationships: TERMINAL FLOWER 1 (TFL1)-like, MOTHER OF FT AND TFL (MFT)-like, and FLOWERING LOCUS T (FT)-like. Expression analysis revealed that MiFT1a, MiFT1b and MiFT2 were expressed mainly in leaves, whereas MiFT3 and MiFT4 were expressed mainly in embryos. The overexpression of MiFTs significantly promoted early flowering under both long- and short-day conditions. Interestingly, it still significantly promoted early flowering at 16 °C and 28 °C, with MiFT1a exhibiting the most significant, followed by MiFT1b and MiFT2. Additionally, the expression level of MiFT3 is related to the embryonic development of mango. Further studies revealed that overexpression of MiFT3 inhibited seed germination in transgenic Arabidopsis lines. In addition, the MiFT1a and MiFT1b transgenic lines did not respond to abiotic stress, while MiFT2, MiFT3 and MiFT4 enhanced resistance to salt or drought stress in Arabidopsis. Yeast two-hybrid (Y2H) and bimolecular fluorescence complementation (BiFC) assays revealed that MiFTs can interact with flower related and multiple stress proteins, such as bZIP protein (MiFD), 14–3-3 protein, zinc finger protein (MiZFP4), RING zinc-finger protein (MiRZFP34), and phosphatase 2C (MiPP2C25A and MiPP2C25B). These results indicate that FT subfamily not only regulates flowering but also participates in stress response, but there are differences in the function among these genes.

Wild native insects are efficient pollinators of mangoes in the Northern Territory of Australia

Mango is an economically important fruit crop in tropical regions, including parts of Australia. However, the contribution of native flower visitors to mango pollination and fruit set is currently understudied. We studied cv. Kensington Pride (KP) in the Northern Territory (NT) of Australia to assess the overall contribution of insect pollinators to fruit set through pollinator exclusion treatments – open pollination, total pollinator exclusion and large pollinator exclusion (>5 mm). We also compared diurnal patterns in insect visitation with mango phenology and determined the pollination effectiveness and efficiency of flower visitors based on visitation rates, foraging behaviour and pollen deposition. At 45 days after the first pollinator survey, the number of fruits per panicle in open and large pollinator exclusion treatments was not significantly different from one another, despite large pollinator exclusion panicles receiving less than half of the number of insect visitations. Furthermore, open and large pollinator exclusion treatments had 28- and 30-times higher numbers of fruits per panicle than the total pollinator exclusion treatment, respectively, showing the importance of insect pollination. The native stingless bee Tetragonula mellipes was the most frequent visitor (7906 visits, 62.7 %), followed by a hover fly Mesembrius bengalensis (2404 visits, 19.1 %). Tetragonula mellipes had the highest mango pollen loads on their bodies and deposited more pollen grains on stigmas per visit than other flower visitors, and contributed 75.5 % to the mango pollination services, about 4.5 times more than the next most important pollinator (M. bengalensis: 16.8 %). Our results suggest that T. mellipes efficiently pollinate mango flowers in the NT when wild colonies are abundant in the native vegetation adjacent to the crop. Placing T. mellipes hives in the centre of larger mango orchards may increase pollination services and potentially farm productivity by ensuring good pollination towards the centre of orchard blocks.

Genomic diversity, population structure, and genome-wide association reveal genetic differentiation and trait improvements in mango.

Mango (Mangifera indica L.) has been widely cultivated as a culturally and economically significant fruit tree for roughly 4000years. Despite its rich history, little is known about the crop's domestication, genomic variation, and the genetic loci underlying agronomic traits. This study employs the whole-genome re-sequencing of 224 mango accessions sourced from 22 countries, with an average sequencing depth of 16.37×, to explore their genomic variation and diversity. Through phylogenomic analysis, M. himalis J.Y. Liang, a species grown in China, was reclassified into the cultivated mango group known as M. indica. Moreover, our investigation of mango population structure and differentiation revealed that Chinese accessions could be divided into two distinct gene pools, indicating the presence of independent genetic diversity ecotypes. By coupling genome-wide association studies with analyses of genotype variation patterns and expression patterns, we identified several candidate loci and dominant genotypes associated with mango flowering capability, fruit weight, and volatile compound production. In conclusion, our study offers valuable insights into the genetic differentiation of mango populations, paving the way for future agronomic improvements through genomic-assisted breeding.

Transcriptome Analysis from leaf during non-flowering vegetative growth phase of mango (Mangifera indica L. var Fazli) from Murshidabad district of West Bengal, India.

Mango (Mangifera indica L.) is a major fruit crop in numerous tropical and subtropical countries, facing various problems such as susceptibility to diseases, bi-annual production, low yield and a brief shelf life of the fruit, in cultivation. Traditional breeding methods have limited success in improving the quality of this fruit crop due to prolonged time of maturity, self-incompatibility and high degree of heterozygosity in breeding lines. However, recent studies utilizing genomic analysis have identified key genes responsible for economically important characters, suggesting the possibility of Marker Assisted Selection (MAS) in breeding lines through transgenic or specific genotype selection from seedlings. With the rapid advancements in genome sequencing and bioinformatics, it is now feasible to identify, label, clone, and manipulate numerous genes related to economically important characters. While research on the flowering and fruiting of mango has been extensive, research studies to preliminarily identify the functions of mango genes during the vegetative growth phase is very few. The major findings include few highly active genes viz. WRKY, NAM, MYB, GoGID1 which is channelizing the energy towards vegetative growth and inhibit flowering genes.

Climate Changes and Mango Production (Temperature)

The mango, known as the {king of fruits}, is commercially significant in many parts of the world. In addition to offering a delicious tropical flavor, mangoes are a great source of nourishment and can make eating a satisfying and healthy sensory experience. Even though mango farming is known to exist in more than 120 nations, just 15 of them are responsible for more than 1% of the world’s supply. More than 60% of the mangoes produced worldwide are grown in India, China, Thailand, Indonesia and Mexico. The effects of climate change on agriculture must take into account the increasing CO2 concentration, a significant contributor to climate change, as CO2 is essential to critical plant functions, including photosynthesis. The fluctuation of temperature represents another climatic factor that affects mango productivity. The primary challenge facing the mango industry is irregular cultivation. The mango flowering was negatively impacted by the erratic distribution of cold nights and relatively warm winters. Mango output is already being impacted by rising average maximum temperatures. Therefore, regardless of mango growers, geniuses, or consumers, rapid climate change should be a top priority. A benefit of selection and breeding operations to adapt to climatic change is the high genetic variety of mangoes.

Flower Visitors, Levels of Cross-Fertilisation, and Pollen-Parent Effects on Fruit Quality in Mango Orchards

Pollination is essential for the reproductive output of crops. Anthropogenic disturbance and global pollinator decline limit pollination success, reducing the quantity or quality of pollen. Relationships between the abundance of flower visitors and fruit production are often poorly understood. We aimed to (1) identify and quantify flower visitors in a mango orchard; (2) assess how much of the crop resulted from self- versus cross-pollination at increasing distances from a cross-pollen source in large, single-cultivar blocks of the cultivar Kensington Pride or the cultivar Calypso; and (3) determine how pollen parentage affected the size, colour, flavour attributes, and nutritional quality of fruit. Mango flowers were mostly visited by rhiniid flies and coccinellid beetles. Approximately 30% of the fruit were the result of cross-pollination, with the percentage significantly decreasing with an increasing distance from a cross-pollen source in the cultivar Calypso. Self-pollinated Calypso fruit were slightly larger and heavier, with higher acid and total polyphenol concentrations than cross-pollinated fruit. Our results showed higher-than-expected levels of cross-fertilisation among fruit, although self-pollen was likely more abundant than cross-pollen in the large orchard blocks. Our results suggest the preferential cross-fertilisation of flowers or the preferential retention of cross-fertilised fruitlets, both representing strategies for circumventing inbreeding depression. Growers should establish vegetated habitats to support pollinator populations and interplant cultivars more closely to maximise cross-pollen transfer.

Pre and Post Training Assessment of Mango Growers Regarding Mango Production in Sindhudurg District of Maharashtra, India

The investigation was undertaken to study the assess pre and post training assessment of mango growers regarding mango production in Sindhudurg district of Maharashtra. The training were organized in three tahsils during the December, 2019 on different management aspects in mango production. The overall average of knowledge level indicated that 49.44 per cent growers had medium knowledge and 32.22 per cent mango growers had high knowledge level. However, low knowledge level was seen in 18.33 per cent growers. Among different phases and management practices, 67.78 per cent growers were well acquainted with harvesting technique. Before training, the lowest score (25.56) was in knowledge about induction of flowering as the flowering in mango is complex phenomena and associated with several factors which may need to explain deeply. The maximum score (82.22) was recorded in harvesting technique. The mean knowledge score on Pest and diseases in mango blossom phase and their management after imparting training was maximum (95.56) compared to the mean knowledge score 48.89 before training. The highest per cent change in knowledge (112.12 per cent) was observed in the causes of fruit drop and remedy for control.

Effect of Amino Acids, Mono-Potassium Phosphate, and Calcium Foliar Application on Flowering, Yield, and Fruit Quality of Mango “Ewaise” Cultivar

Effect of Amino Acids, Mono-Potassium Phosphate, and Calcium Foliar Application on Flowering, Yield, and Fruit Quality of Mango “Ewaise” Cultivar

Competition regulates mango fruiting above a floral density threshold

Mango flowering is interannually variable and temperature dependent. Flowering intensity declines with increasing pre-flowering temperatures associated with global warming, potentially limiting yields. Additionally, floral density that does not contribute to greater yield represents an unnecessary drain on plant resources such as nutrients, water, and carbohydrates. This can lead to reduced fruit bearing capacity in later stages of cropping or contribute to interannual yield variation.The objective of this work was to identify the floral density compensation point (FDCP), above which additional flowering becomes redundant, and below which surplus carbohydrates are partitioned to existing flowers, fruit, vegetative growth, or stored. Over two growing seasons, the number of inflorescences on 32 Calypso® mango trees in Dimbulah, Australia were thinned by up to 95%, resulting in floral densities between 0.09 and 4.14 inflorescences per trunk cross sectional area (cm2). Fruit yield, number, composition, vegetative growth, and starch concentration in terminal growth units were measured for each of the trees.Calypso® mango trees have excess floral density, beyond the maximum fruit biomass the tree can support to harvest. Below the FDCP, the tree is unable to compensate for low numbers of inflorescences, and floral density was strongly positively correlated with fruit number and yield, and strongly negatively correlated with fruit per panicle and total soluble solids concentration of ripe fruit. Above the FDCP fruit yield, number and total soluble solids concentration were only weakly related to floral density as they appear limited by carbohydrate availability rather than flowering. Fruit weight, vegetative regrowth of fruiting and non-fruiting terminals, and the starch concentration in terminal growth units were less dependent upon the FDCP and changed continuously across the floral densities evaluated. This information will be valuable for managing mango flowering under current and future climates.

Uniconazole improves mango flowering and fruit yield by regulating gibberellins and carbon–nitrogen nutrition

Uniconazole improves mango flowering and fruit yield by regulating gibberellins and carbon–nitrogen nutrition

Plant growth promotion and antifungal activities of the mango phyllosphere bacterial consortium for the management of Fusarium wilt disease in pea (Pisum sativum L.)

Root rot caused by the pathogen Fusarium oxysporum is the number one cause of pea plant (P. sativum L.) death. There are many potential advantages to using rhizobacteria, endophytic bacteria and phyllospheric bacteria for managing plant diseases and promoting plant growth. This study investigated the potentiality of consortium species of bacteria to suppress root rot disease and their ability to promote the growth of pea plants compared with their individual and control plants. A total of 55 phyllospheric bacteria were isolated from mango flower and Bacillus sp. LBF- 02, Bacillus sp. LBF- 03 and Bacillus sp. LBF- 05 showed the most potent antimicrobial activity against root rot pathogens in a dual culture assay. Identification of phyllobacterial strain LBF- 01, LBF- 03 and LBF-05 were done by 16S rDNA sequence analysis using 704f forward primer (50-AGATTTTCCGACGGCAGGTT-30) and 907r reverse primer (50-CCGTCAATTCMTTTRAGTTT-30) with the PCR conditions. Their ability to solubilize phosphate, produce ammonia, siderophore and indole acetic acid, as well as produce extracellular enzymes in vitro was excellent. The results of a greenhouse study found that pea seed treated with consortium isolate significantly increased high germination rates and vigour indexes, as well as shoot and root length, fresh and dry weights, as compared with seed treated with single isolate and control. The defense enzyme activities in consortium treated pots were higher than those in individual and control pots. The plants treated with consortium exhibited higher levels of chlorophyll and carotenoids content in their leaves compared to the untreated control and single treated plants. A significant variation in the chemical profile of pea plants was found (F7,16 ? 2.598; P ? 0.048) resulting from different treatments (T1-T8). After evaluating a variety of growth and microbiological parameters, it was concluded that inoculation with the microbial consortium contributed to raising healthy and vigorously growing pea seedlings in greenhouse conditions, which is applicable in the field in future for sustainable farming.

Overexpression of the mango MiGF6A and MiGF6B genes promotes early flowering in transgenic Arabidopsis plants

14-3-3 genes are universal regulators that play important roles in regulating flower development and stress responses. In this study, two homologous 14-3-3 genes, MiGF6A and MiGF6B, were obtained from the genome of SiJiMi mango. Sequence analysis showed that both MiGF6A and MiGF6B have a fully conserved 14-3-3 superfamily domain. MiGF6A and MiGF6B were expressed in tissues at all stages of development, especially in the flowers and buds. Both MiGF6A and MiGF6B were expressed in response to low temperature, NaCl and polyethylene glycol (PEG) treatments. Subcellular localization analysis showed that MiGF6A and MiGF6B were located in the nucleus. Overexpression of MiGF6A and MiGF6B in Arabidopsis thaliana resulted in an early-flowering phenotype and significant upregulation of the flowering-related genes FLOWERING LOCUS T (AtFT), AtFD1, and LEAFY (AtLFY). Yeast two-hybrid and bimolecular fluorescence complementation (BiFC) analyses showed that MiGF6A and MiGF6B interact with the MiFD1, MiFD2 and MiSVP3 proteins. These results suggest that MiGF6A and MiGF6B may play positive roles in the mango flowering process.

Overexpression of mango MiSVP3 and MiSVP4 delays flowering time in transgenic Arabidopsis

SHORT VEGETATIVE PHASE (SVP) belongs to the MADS-box gene family, its main function is to regulate plant flowering, maintain normal flower development and bud dormancy. However, its function in mango (Mangifera indica L.) flowering needs further study. In this research, we obtained two SVP genes, MiSVP3 and MiSVP4, from genomic and transcriptomic data of M. indica L. cv. ‘SiJiMi’. Sequence analysis showed that MiSVP3 and MiSVP4 were typical MADS-box transcription factors. Promoter element analysis suggested that MiSVP3 and MiSVP4 were associated with several hormone responses, stress responses and CArG box cis-elements. Expression analysis indicated that MiSVP3 and MiSVP4 were lowly expressed in flower/buds and highly expressed in vegetative tissue. Subcellular localization indicated that MiSVP3 and MiSVP4 were localized in the nucleus. Overexpression of MiSVP3 and MiSVP4 delays flowering time and results in abnormalities in inflorescences and floral organs in Arabidopsis. MiSVP3 was sensitive only to prohexadione-calcium (Pro-Ca) treatment, while MiSVP4 was sensitive to abscisic acid (ABA), gibberellin (GA3) and Pro-Ca treatment. The Y2H and BiFC assays showed that MiSVP3 interacted with MiSEP1–1 and MiSOC1D but not MiFLC, MiAP1–1 and MiAP1–2, MiSVP4 interacted with MiFLC, MiAP1–1, MiAP1–2 and MiSOC1D but not MiSEP1–1. The Y1H assay showed that MiSVP3 and MiSVP4 could interact with MiFLC, but only MiSVP3 could interact with MiSOC1D. These results suggest that MiSVP3 and MiSVP4 can inhibit mango flowering and participate in the regulation of mango flower formation gene network.

Influence of Flower Inducer on Flowering, Yield and Fruit Quality of Mango (Mangifera indica L.) cv. Amrapali Planted under Different Spacing

Influence of Flower Inducer on Flowering, Yield and Fruit Quality of Mango (Mangifera indica L.) cv. Amrapali Planted under Different Spacing

Differential effects of low and high temperature stress on pollen germination and tube length of mango (Mangifera indica L.) genotypes

Mango flowering is highly sensitive to temperature changes. In this research, the maximum values of pollen germination rate (PGR), pollen tube length (PTL) and their cardinal temperatures (Tmin, Topt and Tmax) were estimated by using quadratic equation and modified bilinear model under the conditions of 14–36 °C. The pollen germination rate in four mango varieties ranged from 29.1% (‘Apple mango’) to 35.5% (‘Renong No. 1’); the length of pollen tube ranged from 51.2 μm (‘Deshehari’) to 56.6 μm (‘Jinhuang’). The cardinal temperatures ranges (Tmin, Topt and Tmax) of pollen germination were 20.3–22.8 °C, 26.7–30.6 °C and 30.4–34.3 °C, respectively; similarly, cardinal temperatures (Tmin, Topt and Tmax) of pollen tube growth were 20.3–21.2 °C, 27.9–32.1 °C and 30.2–34.4 °C respectively. Of those, ‘Renong No. 1’ could maintain relatively high pollen germination rate even at 30 °C, however, ‘Deshehari’ had the narrowest adaptive temperature range. These results were further confirmed by changes of superoxide dismutase, catalase activity and malondialdehyde content. These results showed that mango flowering was highly sensitive to temperature changes and there were significant differences in pollen germination rate and pollen tube length among different varieties. Current research results were of great significance for the introduction of new mango varieties in different ecological regions, the cultivation and management of mango at the flowering stage and the breeding of new mango varieties.

Comparative transcriptomics in alternate bearing cultivar Dashehari reveals the genetic model of flowering in mango.

Flowering is a complex developmental process, with physiological and morphological phases influenced by a variety of external and internal factors. Interestingly, many mango cultivars tend to bear fruit biennially because of irregular flowering, and this has a negative impact on mango flowering and the subsequent yield, resulting in significant economic losses. In this article, transcriptome analysis was carried out on four tissues of mango cv. Dashehari (bearing tree leaf, shoot apex, inflorescence, and non-bearing tree leaf). De novo transcriptome assembly of RNA-seq reads of Dashehari using the Trinity pipeline generated 67,915 transcripts, with 25,776 genes identified. 85 flowering genes, represented by 179 transcripts, were differentially expressed in bearing vs. non-bearing leaf tissues. Gene set enrichment analysis of flowering genes identified significant upregulation of flowering related genes in inflorescence tissues compared to bearing leaf tissues. The flowering genes FT, CO, GI, ELF 4, FLD, FCA, AP1, LHY, and SCO1 were upregulated in the bearing leaf tissues. Pathway analysis of DEGs showed significant upregulation of phenylpropanoid and sucrose and starch pathways in non-bearing leaf tissue compared with bearing leaf tissue. The comparative transcriptome analysis performed in this study significantly increases the understanding of the molecular mechanisms driving the flowering process as well as alternative bearing in mango.

Weeds Enhance Insect Diversity and Abundance and May Improve Soil Conditions in Mango Cultivation of South Florida.

This study examined if weeds could serve as insectary plants to increase beneficial insect abundance and diversity in mango cultivation in southern Florida. Additionally, we examined how weed presence affects mango tree soil health. We found that weeds significantly increased pollinating and parasitoid insect abundance and diversity. Eight insect orders and eighteen families were significantly more abundant on mango trees with weeds growing beneath them than those where weeds were removed. There was no difference in predatory insects between treatments, and slightly more herbivorous insects on weedy mango trees. Pollinating insects visiting mango flowers in the weed treatment were significantly greater, as well as spiders on weedy mango trees. However, there were more lacewings (Neuroptera) observed on the mango trees without weeds, and leaf chlorophyll in the old and new mango leaves was significantly greater, in the weed-free treatment. Soil conditions, however, significantly improved in soil carbon and a greater pH reduction in the presence of weeds, though weeds affected neither soil nitrogen, phosphorous, nor chlorophyll in productive green leaves. These results show that a tolerable level of selective weed species' presence may benefit insect, plant, and soil biodiversity in farms. This is important in increasing production, sustainability, and biodiversity in agriculture, which otherwise may be deficient in non-crop life.

Response of mango (Mangifera indica) cultivars to agro-chemicals for growth and flowering

An experiment was conducted during 2015-16 and 2016-17 at Agricultural Research Station, Banswara district of Rajasthan (Maharana Pratap University of Agriculture & Technology, Udaipur) to study the response of different agro-chemicals for growth and flowering of mango (Mangifera indica). The plants were planted in a square system of planting with a 10m x 10m spacing. Agro-chemicals, calcium chloride, potassium nitrate, paclobutrazol and sorbitol were used. The treatment combinations were applied as control (water spray), calcium chloride (0.3, 0.6 and 0.9%), potassium nitrate (1, 2 and 3%), paclobutrazol (500, 1000 and 1500 ppm) and sorbitol (1.5, 2.0 and 2.5%). Application of different agro-chemicals were applied at different stages and time. Effect of agro-chemicals was found significant for growth and flowering parameters. Paclobutrazol (1500 ppm) was found better for shoot length and diameter, tree spread, canopy volume and days of fruit setting from flower initiation and flowering characters viz. date of flower initiation, per cent fruit setting and retention, days to harvest from fruit setting and first flush after fruiting.