Floristic Zones Research Articles

Floral Diversity of South Karanpura Basin, Jharkhand, India and their Palaeoclimatic Implication with Special Reference to Palaeoenvironment

Abstract The palaeofloristic study of Gondwana sediments recovered from Religara area, South Karanpura Basin illustrates the macrofloral diversity in the area. Three distinct megafloral assemblages I, II, III are reported from freshly exposed coaly shale and carbonaceous shale layers of lower Barakar, upper Barakar and Raniganj formations of the basin. The assemblage comprises 72 species and thirteen genera of which 28 are newly reported species, which clearly exemplifies the macrofloral diversity over Permian Period in the studied area. The retrieved floral assemblages justified the existence of two interrelated ecosystems i.e., terrestrial and marshy. A gradual shifting of leaf morphology in reticulate leaves of order Glossopteridales illustrates biostratigraphic age as well as the shifting of climate during the deposition of sediments. The dominance of narrow mesh Glossopteris flora with the presence of typical Karharbari flora in the lowermost fossil horizon, illustrating the biostratigraphic age as late Artinskian (lower Barakar Formation). Likewise, the middle and upper floristic zones are dominated by Glossopteris of intermediate mesh form and broad mesh form suggesting biostratigraphic age as Kungurian (upper Barakar) and Wordian-Changhsingian (Raniganj) respectively. Deposition of in-situ Vertebraria depicts the autochthonous coal deposits and existence of some patches of palaeosol in the investigated location. The present investigation aims to infer the biostratigraphy, palaeoclimate, palaeoenvironment, palaeovegetational reconstruction of the basin during late Artinskian –Kungurian and Wordian- Changhsingian times.

Beta diversity of urban spontaneous plants and its drivers in 9 major cities of Yunnan province, China

Urbanization has significantly reshaped regional biodiversity structure globally. Previous studies suggested that urban communities of spontaneous plants are well adapted to the urban environment. However, a perspective of urbanization that accounts for the joint impacts of the current state (as expressed by urbanization intensity) and the historical progress of urbanization (as expressed by urbanization rate) to reveal the mechanisms underlying the biodiversity patterns of spontaneous plants in cities is still lacking. Here we present data and analysis of spontaneous plants sampled in 709 patches within 82 sites of built-up areas from nine cities distributed across climatic and floristic zones in Yunnan province, a biodiversity hotspot in China. We used the exponent (z) of a species accumulation curve (SAC) model to characterize beta diversity among patches in a site, and found a higher beta diversity of native species compared with non-natives, indicating that the species composition of native plants is more heterogeneous. The beta diversity of all species groups was best explained by the constant c of the SAC (a proxy of alpha diversity), followed by the urbanization intensity (as expressed by the proportion of sealed surface and patches’ Shannon diversity index), and urbanization rate (as expressed by the sealed surface expansion rate). Moreover, beta diversity of non-native species was additionally negatively correlated with altitude. Our results suggest that the interplay of natural environmental factors and human-induced urbanization shape diversity of urban spontaneous plants in Yunnan province. Our findings emphasize that urban spontaneous plants diversity is not only a reflection of the current state of urbanization, but also a consequence of historical processes of urbanization.

Anthecology of some species ofHamanthus BungeandHalimocnemis C.A. Mey

It is promising to grow the long-vegetating annual halophytesGamanthus BungeandHalimocnemis C.A. Mey. (Chenopodiaceae Vent.) in arid locations since they are important grazing plants for Karakol sheep and camels. These species’ xerothermic periods are when they flower and bear fruit. Research on reproductive biology must first examine how certain traits of plant reproductive organs in harsh environments relate to environmental influences. Identification of reproductive organ adaptation to air temperature and water stress in desert plants is an issue that has not received much attention fromChenopodiaceaefamily members. Such knowledge is crucial for developing perennial agrophytocenoses and boosting the production of pastures in need. The study ofHalimocnemisspecies is particularly interesting since this genus is thought to be confined to the Iran-Turonian floristic zones, with the Central Asian (Turonian) plains being its center of origin. In the studied species, there are signs that ensure the xenogamous type of pollination by entomophilia. These are proterandria in flowers, brightly colored outgrowths of pollen which are secondary attractants, morning type of flowering when insects are in high flight, and autogamous type of pollination by anemophily. Similar conditions eventually lead to funneling ofHalimocnemisandG. gamocarpus.

New patterns of the tree beta diversity and its determinants in the largest savanna and wetland biomes of South America

Clear and data-driven bioregionalizations can provide a framework to test hypotheses and base biodiversity conservation. Here we used occurrence and abundance data in combination with objective analytical methods to propose two bioregionalization schemes for tree species of the Cerrado and the Pantanal in South America. We also evaluated the contribution of three sets of determinants of the occurrence- and abundance-based subregions. We compiled data on tree species composition from 894 local assemblages based on species occurrences, and from 658 local assemblages based on species abundances. We used an unconstrained community-level modelling approach and clustering techniques to identify and map tree subregions for the occurrence and the abundance data sets, separately. Hierarchical clustering analyses were conducted to investigate floristic affinities between the subregions and to map broader floristic regions. We used multinomial logistic regression models, deviance partitioning, and rank-sum tests to assess the main subregion correlates. We identified 18 occurrence- and four abundance-based subregions in the Cerrado-Pantanal. The hierarchical classifications grouped the occurrence-based subregions into nine floristic zones and abundance-based subregions into two broad floristic zones. Variation in subregions were explained mainly by environmental factors and spatial structure in both occurrence and abundance data sets. The occurrence- and abundance-based subregions are complementary approaches to disentangle macroecological patterns and to plan conservation efforts in the Cerrado and the Pantanal. Our findings based on occurrence data revealed more complex and interdigitated boundaries between subregions of tree species than previously reported. The environment, historical stability, and human effects act in a synergetic way on the distribution of the subregions. Finally, the relevance of contemporary environmental factors to the subregion patterns we found alert us to the profound impact global warming may have on the spatial organization of the Cerrado-Pantanal tree flora.

GEOGRAPHY OF CONSERVATION EX SITU OF RARE TAXA OF ANCIENT EXOTIC TREES Pinophyta IN UKRAINE

In the article was analyzed the representativeness of rare taxa of protected ancient exotic tree species Pinophyta in physiographical zones and mountainous countries of Ukraine. Sixtyone species, one subspecies, and one plant variety of this genus were identified in the nature reserves of Ukraine. Among these, most species were found in forest-steppe zone (32), Mountainous Crimea zone (31), and deciduous forest zone (22) suggesting that these three regions could potentially be most favorable for the introduction and acclimatization of foreign Pinophyta species. In ecologicalstructure of the region, dominant are taxa of the mesophytes ecological group, containing frost and winter resistant tree species. Within the geographic range, predominant are native plant species of circumboreal and Atlantic - Pacific Northwest (total of 27 species), Madrean (12) and Western-Asian (11) floristic zones. All 63 taxa are on the IUCN RedList (LC-42, VU-4, NT-7, EN-9, and CR-1 categories). At the same time, Abies nordmanniana (Steve) Spach. subspес. equi-trojani (Asch. and Sint.) Code and Cull. (R) and Abies pinsapo Boiss. (VU) are on the European Red List. These two species together with Abies numidica (CR) represent the rarest taxa among the century-old exotic Pinophyta trees in Ukraine.

Floristry and plant biogeography of the Eastern part of the Volga Upland

Analysis of taxonomic indicators traditionally leads the overall analysis of flora. In this case, first of all, it is necessary to consider the range of families. The triad of leading families deserves special attention, according to the third member of which it is customary to distinguish the type of flora. The type of flora characterizes the corresponding territory within which a floristic “zone” is distinguished. According to the published data on the floras of the administrative units of the Volga basin, we have previously outlined the boundaries within the territory of the Middle and partly the Lower Volga region, on which the Fabaceae-type of flora is revealed. At the same time, the Upper Volga region is represented by Rosaceae-type floras. However, these selected administrative units are too large to outline more specific boundaries.In this article, we propose a similar analysis based on the data of the floras of physical-geographical regions with an area of 2.3–9.7 thousand km2. For the analysis, we selected six areas belonging to the forest-steppe province of the Volga Upland, which is part of the Middle Volga region. We found that the border of the floristic zones (Fabaceae and Rosaceae) runs along the considered area of the Volga Upland. With respect to physical-geographical regions the border runs on one side between Korsun-Sengileevsky and Sredne-Sviyazhsky areas, on the other, between Zasursky and Tsivil-Kubninsky areas. Within the studied territory, the border is determined by the occurrence of representatives of the genera Alchemilla and Potentilla (for Rosaceae), as well as Vicia and Astragalus (for Fabaceae) The prevalence in the number of the common lady’s mantles is more noticeable to the northwest. The genera Carex, Galium, Viola, Potentilla, Artemisia, Salix, Vicia, and Veronica are leading in the frequency of occurrence in the head part of the spectra of floras in the territory under consideration.

Phylogeography and genetic structure of a subarctic-alpine shrub species, Alnus alnobetula (Ehrh.) K. Koch s. l., inferred from chloroplast DNA markers

The green alder Alnus alnobetula s. l., a widely distributed subarctic-alpine shrub species, has been studied using three chloroplast DNA regions: trnH-psbA, trnS-trnG, and psaA-trnS. In addition, new chloroplast primers coding the trnT-GGT cpDNA regions and five cpDNA microsatellite loci (cpSSR) have been developed for this species. The population subdivision is very high (Nst = 0.869, Gst = 0.807, Fst = 0.883), suggesting a distinct phylogeographic structure (Nst > Gst, p < 0.0001) and a sharp contrast between the haplotype-rich eastern part of the species range and the almost completely uniform western part (Siberia, Ural). According to a phylogenetic analysis, the common haplotype of A. alnobetula subsp. fruticosa in the western part of the range originated from northeastern refugia (West Beringia) as a result of interglacial recolonization, including bottleneck events. Three highly divergent cpDNA lineages of green alder that have been resolved in the Russian Far East are largely concordant with A. alnobetula subsp. kamtschaticа, A. alnobetula subsp. mandschurica, and A. alnobetula subsp. maximowiczii. The populations of Sakhalin Island are divided into three phylogeographic groups (southern, central, and northern) corresponding to the different floristic zones and different subspecies. The green alder populations from central Sakhalin have a haplotype-rich composition including different genetic lineages that confirm the existence of a hotspot of genetic diversity in this part of the island.

The flora of the Western Tien Shan: Tajikistan part

The study was devoted to documenting and describing the flora of the part of the western Tien Shan mountain range occurring in Tajikistan. Several field studies were carried out from 2016 to 2019, and more than 20,000 herbarium specimens were also investigated. We identified 547 plant species that were previously not indicated for this region; of these, 407 species were found in the Kurama Range and 140 species in the Mogoltau Mountains. The multivariate hierarchical analysis showed that the general level of floristic similarity among these widely separated areas was relatively low. Among the four floristic zones (the Southwest and Southeast of Kurama Range, Karamazar, and Mountains Mogoltau), the dominant taxa at the family level were Poaceae (78 species belonging to 35 genera), Asteraceae (43 genera and approximately 70 taxa), and Fabaceae (58 taxa belonging to 19 genera), and Brassicaceae (49 taxa in 36 genera). In our species inventory for the Kurama and Mogoltau Mts., 135 species met the criteria for rare species.

Redefining floristic zones in the Korean Peninsula using high-resolution georeferenced specimen data and self-organizing maps.

The use of biota to analyze the distribution pattern of biogeographic regions is essential to gain a better understanding of the ecological processes that cause biotic differentiation and biodiversity at multiple spatiotemporal scales. Recently, the collection of high‐resolution biological distribution data (e.g., specimens) and advances in analytical theory have led to the quantitative analysis and more refined spatial delineation of biogeographic regions. This study was conducted to redefine floristic zones in the southern part of the Korean Peninsula and to better understand the eco‐evolutionary significance of the spatial distribution patterns. Based on 309,333 distribution data of 2,954 vascular plant species in the Korean Peninsula, we derived floristic zones using self‐organizing maps. We compared the characteristics of the derived regions with those of historical floristic zones and ecologically important environmental factors (climate, geology, and geography). In the clustering analysis of the floristic assemblages, four distinct regions were identified, namely, the cold floristic zone (Zone I) in high‐altitude regions at the center of the Korean Peninsula, cool floristic zone (Zone II) in high‐altitude regions in the south of the Korean Peninsula, warm floristic zone (Zone III) in low‐altitude regions in the central and southern parts of the Korean Peninsula, and maritime warm floristic zone (Zone IV) including the volcanic islands Jejudo and Ulleungdo. Totally, 1,099 taxa were common to the four floristic zones. Zone IV showed the highest abundance of specific plants (those found in only one zone), with 404 taxa. Our study improves floristic zone definitions using high‐resolution regional biological distribution data. It will help better understand and re‐establish regional species diversity. In addition, our study provides key data for hotspot analysis required for the conservation of plant diversity.

Successional trajectories and rates of change in sub-tropical Quercus forests in west-central Mexico: evidences from a permanent plot network

Forest succession was studied in sub-tropical high-altitude, Quercus-dominated forest in west-central Mexico in order to address the following research questions: (1) How do successional trajectories progress in three contrasting floristic zones? (2) Which is the magnitude of successional rate of change at different time-scales? (3) What are the major environmental drivers contributing to the observed patterns of forest succession? Data was derived from 86 non-managed permanent plots, 500 m2 each, established along a 10 km floristic gradient, ranging from xeric to mesic sites. In portraying successional trajectories over time and to measure the magnitude of rate of change in three floristic zones, Detrended Correspondence Analysis (DCA) was developed. In order to represent the most significant environmental drivers on patterns of successional trajectories and successional rate of change, we used generalized linear models with gaussian error. Results showed that successional trajectories were not deterministic in each of the floristic zones over the different time-scales analysed; instead we observed four successional trajectories i) plots with an outstanding displacement between time periods, accompanied by an erratic migration over the DCA diagram; ii) plots with a moderate rate of change and uniform movement across the ordination space; iii) a small number of plots with slight change and; iv) few plots with no changes. Soil related variables such as pH, P, N, Mg and Mn, together with slope and catena, were predicted as important contributing factors related to successional processes.

Revising Ellenberg's indicator values for continentality based on global vascular plant species distribution

AbstractQuestionsMisunderstandings and methodological inconsistencies have hampered the applicability of Ellenberg's biogeographic indicator values for continentality. To redefine the indicator values we focused on the following questions: (1) what is meant by phytogeographic continentality as the basic principle behind Ellenberg's indicator values for continentality; (2) can we redefine the continentality indicator values based on an assessment protocol rendering the values more reproducible; and (3) what are the differences between Ellenberg's indicator values for continentality and the redefined ones as a statistical data set, and in application?LocationNorthern Hemisphere, Central Europe.MethodsBiogeographic indicator values are based on global species distribution data. Species’ distribution information is converted to standardized range formulas that combine information on occurrence across floristic zones, altitudinal preferences and the distribution within the oceanity–continentality gradient. Improved and revised range formulas are converted to new indicator values for continentality (C‐value) using simple algorithms.ResultsNew indicator values for continentality (C‐values) and amplitudes for 2984 taxa of Central European vascular plants are presented. The main improvement is the application of a comprehensible assessment protocol. The new C‐value gained a more balanced frequency distribution, rendering it more useful for broad‐scale biogeographic analysis.ConclusionsFor the first time, biogeographic indicator values derived with a consistent method that is based on distribution data are presented. Occurrence information and vegetation data are becoming increasingly available globally, while changing climatic conditions inevitably accelerate species range dynamics, and therefore the application of biogeographic indicator values will increase.

Shared species of the spontaneous flora of a West African (Burkina Faso) and a Central European country (Germany)

In spite of enormous climatic differences between Burkina Faso and Germany, 20 species belong to the spontaneous flora of both countries, i.e. 1% of the flora of Burkina Faso and 0.15 % of the German flora. All of them are either ruderal and segetal species (16) or water and reed plants (4). All of the 16 ruderals/segetals are therophytes. From a recent point of view, most of the 20 species can be classified as cosmopolitan, because they cover three and more floristic zones, and/or at least three climatic zones, and/or are represented in at least three continents. Although Burkina Faso has a semi-arid climate, none of the species can be called a sclero- or xerophyte. Therefore, in Burkina Faso, all are more or less bound to habitats at least temporarily flooded or to humid soils. In Germany, however, the concerned ruderals, with one exception, are indicators of medium dry or dry habitats.

Using ecological and life-history characteristics for projecting species' responses to climate change

Assessing the impact of climate change on range dynamics is difficult in the absence of large-extent distribution data. We developed a novel two-step approach as an instrument for biodiversity risk assessment. First, we established relationships between modelled loss of occupied grid cells (‘range loss’, R2=0.29), or gain of currently unoccupied grid cells (‘range gain’, R2=0.30), for 195 plant species with distributional data under the A1FI climate change scenario up to 2080, and ecological and life history traits (life form, leaf persistence, ecological strategy, pollen vector, Ellenberg indicator values and characteristics derived from species’ ranges). Secondly, we used the resulting coefficients to predict climatic sensitivity for 688 plant species without spatially explicit distributional information. The models predicted range losses of 34±20 % (mean±standard deviation) and range gains of 3±4 %. Specifically, measures of species’ distribution, such as range size, were significantly related to both range loss and range gain. Other traits associated with range loss (e.g. life form, number of floristic zones) were not necessarily related to range gain (instead related to Ellenberg temperature indicator), indicating that two distinct sets of ecological processes govern range expansion and contraction. We found interaction effects between moisture indicator values and life form for range loss, and between moisture and temperature indicator values for range gain. The responses of species to climate change are complex and context dependent. Thus, our results highlight the importance of incorporating trait interactions in models to assess risks of climate change.&nbsp;&nbsp

Using ecological and life-history characteristics for projecting species' responses to climate change

Assessing the impact of climate change on range dynamics is difficult in the absence of large-extent distribution data. We developed a novel two-step approach as an instrument for biodiversity risk assessment. First, we established relationships between modelled loss of occupied grid cells (‘range loss’, R2=0.29), or gain of currently unoccupied grid cells (‘range gain’, R2=0.30), for 195 plant species with distributional data under the A1FI climate change scenario up to 2080, and ecological and life history traits (life form, leaf persistence, ecological strategy, pollen vector, Ellenberg indicator values and characteristics derived from species’ ranges). Secondly, we used the resulting coefficients to predict climatic sensitivity for 688 plant species without spatially explicit distributional information. The models predicted range losses of 34±20 % (mean±standard deviation) and range gains of 3±4 %. Specifically, measures of species’ distribution, such as range size, were significantly related to both range loss and range gain. Other traits associated with range loss (e.g. life form, number of floristic zones) were not necessarily related to range gain (instead related to Ellenberg temperature indicator), indicating that two distinct sets of ecological processes govern range expansion and contraction. We found interaction effects between moisture indicator values and life form for range loss, and between moisture and temperature indicator values for range gain. The responses of species to climate change are complex and context dependent. Thus, our results highlight the importance of incorporating trait interactions in models to assess risks of climate change.&nbsp;&nbsp

The Influence of Altitude and Latitude on Breeding of Amomum tsaoko (Zingiberaceae)

Objective: To explore the effect of altitude and latitude on breeding of Amomum tsaoko Crevost et Lemaire, a flexistylous ginger, which fruit is used as common materia medica and a food condiment. Methods: The 7 populations were selected randomly from the three floristic zones of Yunnan. Adult plants and infructescences were chosen randomly to gain flower number and fructification percentage per inflorescence, and seed number per fruit. All date was analyzed by SPSS (13.0 version). Results: As A. tsaoko was distributed (or transplanted) from a habitat at lower latitude and/or altitude to a site of higher latitude and/or altitude, the flower number per inflorescence increased, on the contrary, the fructification percentage per inflorescence decreased. The competition for reproductive resource was beneficial to increase flower number and seed production. Conclusions: The habitats in south of the tropic of cancer were favorable to the reproduction of A. tsaoko, which reproductive costs were lower and harvest was higher. Increasing flower number per inflorescence may be a strategy to promote the plant to distribute into alpine habitats for both female and male reproductive success.

Bioprospecting using a statistical approach applied to an ethnopharmacological database on ‘snakebite-plants' - the genus Piper

The present study was undertaken to investigate whether statistical evaluation of ethnobotanical data enhances the selection of species with pharmacological activities. A database was created for plants used to treat snakebites worldwide, which included 164 plant families, 883 genera and 1521 species (1). Five countries with a high number of entries, representing different cultures, geography and floristic zones were selected: Brazil, Nicaragua, Nepal, China and South Africa. The datasets were analysed by regression and binominal analysis in to see if any „snake-plant family/genera“ was overrepresented in the respective traditional medicinal systems relative to the abundance in the local flora (1). The only genus recognized as a positive outlier was Piper.

FloraGREIF – An Internet-Based Data Repository for Biogeographical Research in Mongolia

FloraGREIF presents an internet-based information tool on the vascular plant flora of Mongolia combining taxon- and record-specific information, text and image information with map information and digitized plant specimens with images of living species and their habitats. Based on an updated checklist as taxonomic backbone, information is split into the “taxon” and the “record” level. At the taxon level the user finds taxonomic diagnoses, habitat information, and species distribution within the floristic regions of Mongolia. The latter is visualized in a Web GIS application. The record level offers information for all records assigned to one taxon, which may include locality data only or additional, high-resolution scans of herbarium specimens combined with images from living species and their habitats. Several query masks allow a flexible search and display of species lists. The interactive Web GIS application links taxon or record information with various map layers, comprising administrative units, topography and orography, floristic regions and vegetation zones of Mongolia. They present background information for the display of species distribution or record localities. FloraGREIF offers a virtual research environment to make the substantial information on Mongolia’s flora mainly published in Russian accessible to the public.

Climate Change and Our Environment: The Effect on Respiratory and Allergic Disease

Climate change is a constant and ongoing process. It is postulated that human activities have reached a point at which we are producing global climate change. It provides suggestions to help the allergist/environmental physician integrate recommendations about improvements in outdoor and indoor air quality and the likely response to predicted alterations in the earth's environment into his or her patient's treatment plan. It incorporates references retrieved from Pub Med searches for topics, including:climate change, global warming, global climate change, greenhouse gasses, air pollution, particulates, black carbon, soot and sea level, as well as references contributed by the individual authors. Many changes that affect respiratory disease are anticipated.Examples of responses to climate change include energy reduction retrofits in homes that could potentially affect exposure to allergens and irritants, more hot sunny days that increase ozone-related difficulties, and rises in sea level or altered rainfall patterns that increase exposure to damp indoor environments.Climate changes can also affect ecosystems, manifested as the appearance of stinging and biting arthropods in new areas.Higher ambient carbon dioxide concentrations, warmer temperatures, and changes in floristic zones could potentially increase exposure to ragweed and other outdoor allergens,whereas green practices such as composting can increase allergen and irritant exposure. Finally, increased energy costs may resultin urban crowding and human source pollution, leading to changes in patterns of infectious respiratory illnesses. Improved governmental controls on airborne pollutants could lead to cleaner air and reduced respiratory diseases but will meet strong opposition because of their effect on business productivity. The allergy community must therefore adapt, as physician and research scientists always have, by anticipating the needs of patients and by adopting practices and research methods to meet changing environmental conditions.

Cross-cultural comparison of medicinal floras used against snakebites

Ethnopharmacological relevanceEnvenomation causes an estimated 1.8–2.5 million incidences per year with a mortality level of 100–125,000 persons annually and more than 100,000 individuals suffer from severe complications, which may end in amputation of the attacked limb. The use of plants is a major part of the traditional practitioners’ treatment of snakebites. Materials and methodsA database was created for plants used to treat snakebites worldwide. From this database, we selected five countries with a high number of entries and representing different cultures, geography and floristic zones: Brazil, Nicaragua, Nepal, China and South Africa. The datasets were analysed by regression and binominal analysis to see if any family or genus used against snakebites was overrepresented in the respective traditional medicinal systems relative to the abundance in the local flora. The families from the different geographical areas were compared to ascertain whether the same plant families are preferred by different peoples. ResultsThree ‘hot’ families (Apocynaceae, Lamiaceae and Rubiaceae) were recovered in at least two of the five compared countries in the regression analyses and one ‘hot’ family (Zingiberaceae) was recovered in two of the compared countries in the binomial analyses. Four out of five floras possess families identified as outliers in both regression and binomial analyses. Eight families were recovered by both the binomial and the regression analysis (40–62% of all highlighted families respectively). At the genus level, only Piper (Piperaceae) was recovered as a ‘hot’ genus in at least two floras. Seven genera were highlighted by both analyses (25–44% of the highlighted genera). ConclusionsCross-cultural comparison of medicinal floras used against snakebites appears to be useful for highlighting candidate families and genera for further studies.

Phytosociology: A modern geobotanical method

Vegetation Science is a scientific discipline devoted to the study of vegetation at all levels of complexity spanning populations, plant communities and biomes. It attempts to explain vegetation patterns and the processes governing vegetation assembly and dynamics in all temporal and spatial scales. Vegetation analysis serves to record anthropo-zoogenic effects and portrays similarly structured vegetation formations with characteristic vegetation complexes and plant communities. These plant communities consist of recognisable and reproducible associations of plant types which are subject to natural laws under the same ecological conditions. Wherever one finds similar habitat conditions in comparable bioregions or floristic zones on the planet, similar communities exist and can be typified. Such determinative plant community-habitat-type systems possess high bioindicator value for different biotic and abiotic habitat conditions. The floristic compositions and structure of plant communities and biotope-types can be categorised, and such vegetation units can be abstracted as elementary types, marked by their characteristic species combination under certain habitat-dependent conditions. Phytosociology provides the scientific background and method to address these questions. It was established by Josias Braun-Blanquet (Braun-Blanquet J. 1918. Eine pflanzengeographische Exkursion durch Unterengadin und in den schweizerischen Nationalpark. Beitr Geobot Landesaufnahme 4: 1–80.) and promoted for example in Germany by Reinhold Tüxen (Tüxen R. 1937. Die Pflanzengesellschaften Nord-Westdeutschlands. Mitt. Flor. Soz. Arbeitsgemein. Nieders. 3, Hannover, 170 p.). The Flora-Fauna-Habitat-Guideline (FFH-Natura 2000), enacted on 21 May 1992 established homogenous criteria for endangered biotypes throughout Europe, founded on a modern phytosociological basis. Phytosociological terminology also forms the basis of biotype-differentiation in the UNESCO Convention on Biodiversity (COP9). Vegetation science is a socially and politically critical discipline, serving to benefit and progress human society and sustainable usage of its natural resources.