Floral Spikes Research Articles

Effect of spraying the acetylsalicylic acid and citric acid on some physical and chemical characteristics of date palm two cultivars Halawi and Sayer

This study was conducted in an orchard in Basra Governorate during the 2020 growing season, with the aim of the effect of spraying the antioxidants acetylsalicylic acid and citric acid on some physical and chemical characteristics of two date palm cultivars Phoenix dactylifera L. (Halawi and Sayer) in improving the chemical and physical properties of the fruits. The experiment included five-factor treatments, which are the comparison treatment and two concentrations of citric acid 150, 300 mg.L-1 and two concentrations of acetylsalicylic acid 500 and 1000 mg.L-1, the floral spikes were sprayed twice, the first spraying a month after pollination and the second spray 15 days after the first spray. The results demonstrated that spraying with two acids led to a significant increase in all studied traits, sprayed with salicylic acetylcholine at a concentration of 1000 mg. mg.L-1 and spraying with citric acid 300 mg. mg.L-1 significant increase in yield, while spraying with distilled water gave the lowest value for the studied traits, the binary interaction between acetylsalicylic acid at a concentration of 1000 mg.L-1 and Halawi cultivar significantly outperformed in all the traits included in the study. Keywords: Acetyl, citric acid, date palm, Halawi, Sayer.

Diversidad de trips (Insecta: Thysanoptera: Thripidae) asociados al cultivo de gladiolo en México

El gladiolo es una planta ornamental de corte con alta demanda durante todo el año en México, generando una fuerte actividad económica y social. Los trips son la principal plaga que lo afecta, y que mayor control requiere, pero se desconoce la identidad de las especies que lo dañan. El presente estudio tuvo la finalidad de conocer la diversidad de especies de trips asociadas al cultivo de gladiolo en dos regiones productoras del estado de México. Se establecieron dos parcelas: la parcela uno ubicada en Ixtlahuaca, de la región norte, caracterizada por un manejo poco intensivo; en tanto que la parcela dos estuvo en Villa Guerrero, de la región sureste, caracterizada por un manejo intensivo y considerada la principal región productora de ornamentales. Se utilizaron 100 espigas florales por parcela para capturar los trips al final del ciclo de cultivo. Los resultados indicaron la presencia de dos géneros, cinco especies fitófagas presentes en la región norte, y un género depredador; mientras que en la región sureste se presentaron los dos mismos géneros pero con la presencia de 12 especies, una de las cuales es nueva para México. Thrips simplex fue la especie más abundante en las dos parcelas evaluadas.

Invivo hepatoprotective potential of extracts obtained from floral spikes of Prunella vulgaris L

BackgroundPrunella vulgaris, commonly known as self-heal, has been extensively used in the traditional system of medicines. The plant has been found to contain a number of bioactive molecules including those having radical scavenging property which indicates its potential for the treatment of those diseases which are induced by free radical damage like drug-induced hepatotoxicity. ObjectiveThe current study was undertaken to investigate the flavonoid and total phenolic content and evaluate the hepatoprotective potential of various extracts obtained from floral spikes of P. vulgaris. Material and methodsFlavonoid and otal phenolic contents were obtained from the standard curves of Gallic acid as per the reported methods. The extent of hepatotoxicity induced by paracetamol (500 mg/kg b.w, p.o daily for 14 days), hepatoprotective potential of extracts (200 mg/kg b.w/day, orally) and standard drug silymarin (50 mg/kg b.w/day, orally) were evaluated by analyzing various biochemical parameters like Serum Glutamic Oxaloacetic Transaminase, Serum Glutamic Pyruvic Transaminase, Alkaline Phosphatase, Total Proteins, Total and Direct Bilirubin and detailed histopathology of rat livers. ResultsMethanolic extract showed higher quantity of flavonoids and total phenolic content followed by ethanolic, hydroalcoholic and aqueous extracts. Treatment of rats with extracts showed a highly significant reduction in the enzyme activities of Serum Glutamic Oxaloacetic Transaminase, Serum Glutamic Pyruvic Transaminase, Alkaline Phosphatase, and serum levels of Total, Direct Bilirubin (P < 0.01) and highly significant elevation in Total Proteins (P < 0.01) when compared with the toxic control group. This was further confirmed by histopathological evaluation, where almost normal hepatic architecture or very less hepatic damage was observed in groups treated with extracts and silymarin compared to paracetamol treated group. Results from biochemical and histopathological evaluation indicated that among the extracts methanolic extract was most effective. ConclusionFrom the results, it can be concluded that the extracts obtained from floral spikes of P. vulgaris possess highly significant hepatoprotective activity which could be attributed to its radical scavenging potential and hepatic regeneration. This is further authenticated by the presence of phenolic and flavonoids which are known to possess radical scavenging properties.

The Effect of Light Intensity and Temperature on Flowering and Morphology of Potted Red Firespike

Red firespike (Odontonema strictum) is a tropical flowering plant that was selected as a potential flowering potted plant for its attractive red floral spikes. The objective of this study was to evaluate how light intensity, photoperiod, and temperature affect the growth and flowering of firespike. In Experiment 1, plants were grown under 0%, 45%, or 65% shade and two photoperiod conditions; long-day (LD = ≥14 h) and short-day (SD = 9 h), for 16 weeks. Plants grown under 45% shade + LD were tallest at 35.9 cm, while plants grown under 65% shade + SD were shortest at 22.8 cm. During the finishing stage, the number of inflorescences increased when plants were grown under 45% shade + SD, 45% shade + LD, and no shade, with 6, 7, and 9 inflorescences, respectively. In addition, the first open flower was observed in the 0% shade group (control) 92 days after starting the experiment. The time to first open flower increased when the plants were grown under 65% shade, either under SD or LD. In Experiment 2, plants were grown in controlled environment growth chambers with average daily temperatures of 15, 25, or 35 °C and an irradiance of 200 µmol·m−2·s−1 for 9 h per day. Plants grown at 25 °C were the tallest and had the largest leaf area. Plants grown at 15 and 35 °C had 28% and 22% less leaf area, respectively. The average number of inflorescences in plants grown at 25 °C was 1.6, while no inflorescence development was observed in plants grown at 15 or 35 °C by the termination of the experiment. There were no differences between plant growth index or branch number in response to temperature. Under the experimental conditions tested, the most rapid and uniform flowering of firespike occurred when plants were grown under no shade or at 25 °C.

Improvement of micropropagation protocol of Phalaenopsis sp. for the method of direct shoot regeneration from nodes of floral spikes

This paper succesfully investigated the possibility of modification of the micropropagation protocol of Phalaenopsis sp. with an aim to simplify the procedure and reduce the costs. The obtained results show that some medium components can be succesfully omitted (coconut water, glutamine, 2-morpholinoethanesulfonic acid) and some of them (peptone) can be replaced with a cheaper constituent (soy flour) while preserving the quality of the obtained microplants. The multiplication rate was 7,6 shoots per explant after the period of 150 days of cultivation in vitro. On the same medium 60% of explants were rooted and roots were mostly well developed.

Seven new dammarane triterpenes from the floral spikes of Betula platyphylla var. japonica

Seven new dammarane-type triterpenoids, including two 20(S)-hydroxy-25-methoxy-dammar-23-enes (1 and 2), two 20(S),24(R)-epoxydammaranes (3 and 4), a cabralealactone (5), and two 20(S),25-epoxydammaranes (6 and 7), together with seven known triterpenes (8-14), were isolated from the floral spikes of Betula platyphylla var. japonica. The structures for all compounds were elucidated by the analyses of extensive spectroscopic data, as well as chemical examinations.

Molecular characterization of a new isolate of phytoplasma associated with malformation and twisting of floral spikes of Gladiolus in India

In 2007–2009, severe virescence, malformation and twisting of flower spikes and yellowing of entire plants were observed in various Gladiolus cultivars growing in the gardens of the National Botanical Research Institute, Lucknow, India. The disease symptoms were very similar to symptoms in Gladiolus caused by the Aster yellows phytoplasma identified from Poland. Disease incidence was low (1.1–3.4%), but the severity of symptoms was high. A phytoplasma infection was detected in nine of 13 cultivars by PCR followed by nested PCR using universal phytoplasma primers P1/P6 or R16F2n/R16R2, respectively. An amplicon of ~1.2 kb obtained from the nested PCR was cloned and sequenced. Sequence analysis of the PCR amplicon revealed high (94–98%) identities and the closest phylogenic relationships with several isolates of Aster yellows phytoplasma of ‘Candidatus Phytoplasma asteris’ (16SrI group). Thus, the phytoplasma isolate of Gladiolus was identified as a new isolate of ‘Ca. P. asteris’ (16SrI group). In silico analysis of the phytoplasma isolate clearly indicated that the isolate was distinct from other Indian isolates of this phytoplasma.

Use of olive mill wastewater as an organic amendment for Mentha spicata L.

In this study, we investigated the impact of olive mill wastewater (OMW) spreading on soil characteristics, Mentha spicata L. yields and essential oil composition. Soil characterization and spearmint cuttings plantation were done after two months from OMW spreading at 8 l m −2 and 16 l m −2. OMW spreading at 8 l m −2 induced a significant increase in abundances of yeasts, actinomycetes, nitrogen aerobes and cellulolitics in soil while the increase was smaller or insignificant for 16 l m −2. Moulds showed no changes in abundances for the two doses while ammonifiers presented a deep decrease more important for the higher dose. Soil phenols joined the control for the dose 8 l m −2 and stayed significantly higher for the dose 16 l m −2. The soil humification degree was significantly increased for the two doses with higher increase for 8 l m −2. Concerning plant response, OMW spreading at 8 l m −2 allowed a significant increase of 94% of shoots weight, 15% of shoots size, 145% of number of floral spikes, 60% of stolons weight, 51% of stolons size and no significant increase in the number of produced stolons per plant. The essential oil yield was significantly increased of 17% in comparison with control. For the dose 16 l m −2, there were no increase for all the parameters excepted the size of stolons. The essential oil yield was reduced of 52%. The essential oil composition did not show important changes when the amount spread was 8 l m −2. However, for 16 l m −2, we obtained a disappearance of β-pinene, limonene and cis-jasmone, major compounds of the essential oil and appearance of some compounds newly synthesized. An increase of concentration was obtained for dihydrocarvone, dihydrocarvyl acetate, β-bourbonene, caryophyllene, germacrene D and cis-calamenene.

First report of ‘Candidatus Phytoplasma asteris’ (16SrI group) associated with colour‐breaking and malformation of floral spikes of gladiolus in India

First report of ‘<i>Candidatus</i> Phytoplasma asteris’ (16SrI group) associated with colour‐breaking and malformation of floral spikes of gladiolus in India

The Use of N-6-benzyladenine to Regulate Flowering of Phalaenopsis Orchids

Phalaenopsis orchid (Phalaenopsis hybrids) is an important potted flower around the world. Programming phalaenopsis to bloom as needed and improving flower quality are important to increasing profitability. Whole plants were sprayed with 70 mg·L−1 N-6-benzyladenine (BA) at dusk on days 1 and 14 after subjecting them to a 26/18 °C treatment. The spiking percentage at week 4 after the start of the 26/18 °C treatment of phalaenopsis Luchia Pink ‘244’ control plants was 58% ± 12% (mean ± se), while 98% ± 4% of the BA-treated plants developed floral spikes. The number of flower spikes in phalaenopsis Luchia Pink ‘244’ and doritaenopsis orchid (Doritaenopsis hybrids) Taisico Firebird ‘OX’ increased from 1 to 1.2 flower spikes per plant and from 1.6 to 2 flower spikes per plant at the end of week 14, respectively. When whole plants were sprayed with 150 mg·L−1 BA at dusk on day 1 of cooling, the number of flower spikes in phalaenopsis Sogo Yukidian ‘V3’ increased from 1.3 to 2 flower spikes per plant, and the flower count in phalaenopsis Tai Lin Redangel ‘Queen’ increased from 10.4 to 14 flowers at the end of week 20. However, the flower longevity of phalaenopsis Sogo Yukidian ‘V3’ and phalaenopsis Tai Lin Redangel ‘Queen’ was not affected. However, phalaenopsis Luchia Pink ‘244’ sprayed with 70 mg·L−1 BA on days 1 and 14 resulted in deformed flower spikes. It is recommended that 14 to 16 weeks before specific festivals, the phalaenopsis orchids should be put into 26/18 °C and BA treatments (100–150 mg·L−1) at day 1 for commercial phalaenopsis orchids production. However, perhaps BA is not effective for all cultivars.

The Use of N-6-benzyladenine to Regulate Flowering of Phalaenopsis Orchids

Phalaenopsis orchid (Phalaenopsis hybrids) is an important potted flower around the world. Programming phalaenopsis to bloom as needed and improving flower quality are important to increasing profitability. Whole plants were sprayed with 70 mg·L−1 N-6-benzyladenine (BA) at dusk on days 1 and 14 after subjecting them to a 26/18 °C treatment. The spiking percentage at week 4 after the start of the 26/18 °C treatment of phalaenopsis Luchia Pink ‘244’ control plants was 58% ± 12% (mean ± se), while 98% ± 4% of the BA-treated plants developed floral spikes. The number of flower spikes in phalaenopsis Luchia Pink ‘244’ and doritaenopsis orchid (Doritaenopsis hybrids) Taisico Firebird ‘OX’ increased from 1 to 1.2 flower spikes per plant and from 1.6 to 2 flower spikes per plant at the end of week 14, respectively. When whole plants were sprayed with 150 mg·L−1 BA at dusk on day 1 of cooling, the number of flower spikes in phalaenopsis Sogo Yukidian ‘V3’ increased from 1.3 to 2 flower spikes per plant, and the flower count in phalaenopsis Tai Lin Redangel ‘Queen’ increased from 10.4 to 14 flowers at the end of week 20. However, the flower longevity of phalaenopsis Sogo Yukidian ‘V3’ and phalaenopsis Tai Lin Redangel ‘Queen’ was not affected. However, phalaenopsis Luchia Pink ‘244’ sprayed with 70 mg·L−1 BA on days 1 and 14 resulted in deformed flower spikes. It is recommended that 14 to 16 weeks before specific festivals, the phalaenopsis orchids should be put into 26/18 °C and BA treatments (100–150 mg·L−1) at day 1 for commercial phalaenopsis orchids production. However, perhaps BA is not effective for all cultivars.

Effect of Triterpenoids Isolated from the Floral Spikes of Betula platyphylla var. japonica on P-Glycoprotein Function

One of the major causes of multidrug resistance (MDR) in cancer cells is over-expression of P-glycoprotein (P-gp). We studied the effects of 20 triterpenes isolated from the floral spikes of Betula platyphylla var. japonica ( B. platyphylla) on P-gp function based on our previous finding that some of them showed MDR reversing effects. We evaluated accumulations and effluxes of rhodamine 123 as a P-gp substrate with P-gp over-expressing KB-C2 cells. Among the 20 triterpenes, compounds 3, 4, 8, 9, 13, 15, and 20 increased rhodamine 123 accumulations in KB-C2 cells, and three ( 8, 13, and 20) of them also inhibited efflux of rhodamine 123 out of cells. In addition, compounds 13 and 20 showed a weak inhibitory activity of P-gp ATPase. These results suggested that MDR reversing effects of compounds 13 and 20 are partly involved in inhibition of P-gp ATPase.

Triterpenoids from the Floral Spikes of Betula platyphylla var. japonica and Their Reversing Activity against Multidrug-Resistant Cancer Cells

Four new triterpenes, together with 16 known triterpenes, were isolated from the floral spikes of Betula platyphylla var. japonica in a search for compounds capable of reversing multidrug resistance in cancer cells. The structures of the new triterpenes were elucidated as 3,4-seco-olean-4(23),13(18)-dien-3-oic acid (1), 3,4-seco-urs-4(23),20(30)-dien-3-oic acid (2), 3-O-methylmalonylepiocotillol II (6), and 3-O-methylmalonylcabraleahydroxylactone (16) by spectroscopic examination. The cytotoxicity of the isolated triterpenes against human cancer cell lines as well as multidrug-resistant cancer cell lines was evaluated. Most of the isolated triterpenes showed very weak cellular toxicities. Although no discernible differences were found in the cytotoxicities for the tested compounds against sensitive and resistant cell lines, the cytotoxicities for several triterpenes against multidrug-resistant cancer cell lines (KB-C2 or K562/Adr) were enhanced in the presence of nontoxic concentrations of colchicine or doxorubicin. Compound 10 reversed the cytotoxicity of colchicine against KB-C2 cells at 8.1 microM and showed comparable potency to 5 microM verapamil.

Chemical Constituents of the Essential Oils of Three Piper Species from Monteverde, Costa Rica

The essential oils from the floral spikes of Piper auritum Kunth, the aerial parts of Piper marginatum Jacq., and the leaves of Piper umbellatum L., from Monteverde, Costa Rica, have been obtained by hydrodistillation in 0.55%, 0.24%, and 0.18%, respectively. The volatile oils have been analyzed by GC-MS. The floral essential oil of Piper auritum is composed largely of safrole (93%), comparable to that found in the leaf oil. The essential oil of Piper marginatum is composed largely of the anisyl derivatives trans-anethole (46%), p-anisaldehyde (22%), and anisyl ketone (14%), and differs markedly from P. marginatum essential oil from Brazil. Piper umbellatum essential oil is rich in sesquiterpenoids, largely β-caryophyllene (28%), germacrene D (17%), and (E,E)-α-farnesene (15%), very different from P. umbellatum volatile oil from S. Tomé e Príncipe, which was dominated by the monoterpenoids α- and β-pinene.

RESPONSE OF LILIUM SP. ´STARGARZER´ TO EXOGENOUS ETHYLENE DURING POSTHARVEST

There are variable reports with regard to the sensitivity of Lilium sp. to exogenous ethylene. According to some studies, the different types of Lilium sp. are sensitive to ethylene; however, the eastern type of Lilium sp. has been shown to have low sensitivity to ethylene. The objective of this research was to determine the eventual sensitivity of Lilium sp. 'Stargazer' to exogenous ethylene that could be present during the commercial postharvest period. For this purpose, an experiment with five treatments (ethylene concentrations of 0, 1, 10, 100, 1000 ppm) and six replications (floral spikes with unopened flowers), in a completely randomized block design was established. Ethylene was applied by spraying the spikes with an aqueous solution of 2-chloroethyl-phosphonic acid. Parameters measured were duration of the shiny green colour of the leaves, days to first flower to attain the fully opened stage and postharvest lifespan of the spikes. Results showed no significant differences between treatments for leaf colour or in days for the first flower to attain the fully opened stage. However, the lifespan of spikes is significantly reduced with ethylene concentrations of 100 and 1000 ppm. Such high concentrations are unlikely to occur and Lilium sp. 'Stargazer' should be considered for all practical purposes as a product that will not be affected by ethylene during postharvest.

Ebullitive release of lacunar gases from floral spikes of Potamogeton angustifolius and Potamogeton amplifolius: effects on plant aeration and sediment CH 4 flux

Field and laboratory studies examined two Potamogeton species ( P. angustifolius Berchtold Presl. and P. amplifolius Tuckerm.) for effects of ebullition from submersed floral inflorescences, or spikes, upon plant aeration and sediment CH 4 release. Results indicated that daytime release of lacunar gas via ebullition from submersed floral spikes of mature clones was light-dependent and comparable to post-emergence flux. Analysis of tracer movement through plants and measurements of lacunar pressure revealed that daytime convection was driven by a sustained pressure difference (3–6 kPa at midday) between non-ebullient and ebullient clones, and enhanced exchange of lacunar gas between clones connected via rhizome. In comparison to non-ebullient clones, stem lacunae of ebullient clones showed higher concentrations of CH 4 and CO 2 and lower concentrations of O 2. In situ measurements of diffusive and ebullitive CH 4 flux from plants and sediment showed that ebullitive release from submersed floral spikes of P. angustifolius represented 19–29% of total areal CH 4 flux. This indicates that, in addition to effects on plant aeration, ebullitive release of lacunar gases from submersed rhizomatous angiosperms may represent a heretofore-unquantified source of CH 4 emission from aquatic systems.

Analysis of the Spaceflight Effects on Growth and Development of Super Dwarf Wheat Grown on the Space Station Mir

The hypothesis being tested is that Super Dwarf wheat, Triticum aestivum L., plants in the Svet Greenhouse onboard the Russian Space Station Mir will complete a life cycle in spaceflight, providing that the environmental conditions necessary for adequate growth on Earth are supplied. Twenty six seeds of wheat were planted in each of 2 rows of 2 root compartments for a total of 104 seeds in Svet. Germination rate at 7 d was 56 and 73% on Mir and 75 and 90% in ground-based controls. Plants were grown throughout the whole cycle of ontogenesis (123 d) with samples gathered at different times to validate the morphological and reproductive stages of the plants. Young plants showed vigorous early seedling growth, with large biomass production, including the formation of 280 floral spikes. Upon return to Earth, comparative analyses showed that the number of tillers and flowers per spikelet were 63.2% and 40% greater, respectively, in Mir-grown plants than in the controls. By contrast, the stem length (52.4%), spike mass (49.2%) and length (23.1%), awn length (75.7%), number of spikelets per spike (42.8%) and number of seeds per spike (100% sterile) from Mir-grown plants were substantially less than the controls. Distribution of moisture and roots throughout the substrate was very good. All florets on Mir-grown spikes ceased development at the same stage of ontogeny. Lack of caryopses formation was attributed to male sterility occurring at different stages of staminal development. Anthers failed to dehisce and pollen grains were smaller and shriveled compared to the controls, suggesting a chronic stress had occurred in the Svet growth chamber. Recent ground-based studies indicated that ethylene, which was measured at 0.3 to 1.8 mg kg-1 in the Mir, almost certainly could have induced male sterility in the wheat plants grown on the Mir.

Rising CO2 and pollen production of common ragweed (Ambrosia artemisiifolia L.), a known allergy-inducing species: implications for public health.

Although environmental factors such as precipitation and temperature are recognized as influencing pollen production, the impact of rising atmospheric carbon dioxide concentration ([CO2]) on the potential growth and pollen production of hay-fever-inducing plants is unknown. Here we present measurements of growth and pollen production of common ragweed (Ambrosia artemisiifolia L.) from pre-industrial [CO2] (280 mol mol–1) to current concentrations (370 mol mol–1) to a projected 21st century concentration (600 mol mol–1). We found that exposure to current and elevated [CO2] increased ragweed pollen production by 131 and 320%, respectively, compared to plants grown at pre-industrial [CO2]. The observed stimulations of pollen production from the pre-industrial [CO2] were due to an increase in the number (at 370 mol mol–1) and number and size (at 600 mol mol–1) of floral spikes. Overall, floral weight as a percentage of total plant weight decreased (from 21% to 13%), while investment in pollen increased (from 3.6 to 6%) between 280 and 600 mol mol–1 CO2. Our results suggest that the continuing increase in atmospheric [CO2] could directly influence public health by stimulating the growth and pollen production of allergy-inducing species such as ragweed.

Time and method of floral initiation and effect of paclobutrazol on flower and fruit development in Shorea stenoptera (Dipterocarpaceae).

Small Shorea stenoptera Burck. (Dipterocarpaceae) trees of reproductive age growing in an arboretum in west Java were studied to determine the pattern of vegetative shoot development, the time and method of floral initiation and the effect of paclobutrazol on floral enhancement. Vegetative buds were enclosed by two stipules between which was a leaf primordium, a small axillary vegetative bud and another pair of stipules. This sequence was reiterated five to seven times before the vegetative apex was visible. At the time of floral initiation, axillary buds developed into floral spikes and compound inflorescences formed at the end of drooping branches. A compound inflorescence might bear many floral spikes and each floral spike bore many flowers. The compound inflorescence was a modification of the reiterative developmental pattern observed in vegetative shoots. The time of floral initiation began in late June or early July and continued until about November. Floral enhancement using paclobutrazol as a soil drench was attempted in mid-July, but this was later found to be after the onset of floral initiation, and the treatment failed to enhance flowering; however, it appeared to enhance the rate of floral and fruit development. The similarity in vegetative bud development among dipterocarp genera suggests that the time of floral initiation may be easily determined in many species based on simple dissection techniques.

Population Structure and Reproductive Biology of Saururus cernuus L. (Saururaceae)

The population structure and reproductive biology of Saururus cernuus (Lizard's Tail; Saururaceae; Piperales), is documented in five sites in southern Louisiana (Mississippi Delta). The species is common throughout the southeastern United States in marshes, along streams, edges of lakes, and in the understory of moist forests. The clonal species exhibits sexual and vegetative reproduction. Wind and insects both play important roles in pollination. Pollen may be borne by insects directly. Alternatively, the pollen may be borne by wind after its release is triggered from pendulous floral spikes (the “Lizard's Tail”) by either wind or insect landings (insect-mediated wind pollination). The plants are self-incompatible and seed set results from a combination of pollination modes with wind pollination being the primary mode (rare in the Magnoliidae). Inflorescence and floral structure exhibit adaptive features that facilitate the various modes of pollen transfer, viz., numerous, small scented, protogynous flowers with no perianth, ultraviolet patterns produced by stamen filaments, small pollen grains, curved inflorescences, and exerted stamens, etc. Fruit production and seed germination are documented and plant growth and densities are compared in sunny versus forest sites.