Floral Bouquets Research Articles

Floral scents, specialized metabolites and stress-response activities in Heritiera fomes and Bruguiera gymnorrhiza from Sundarban mangrove ecosystem.

Floral biochemistry and stress physiology is an underexplored aspect of mangroves, which should be investigated as part of preservation and restoration efforts. A thriving true mangrove tree (Bruguiera gymnorrhiza (L.) Lamk.) and a threatened mangrove-associate species (Heritiera fomes Buch. Ham.) were studied in the Sundarban region of India for seasonal variations in floral odours, non-volatile phytochemicals, antioxidant enzyme activities, and surface water chemistry in surrounding habitat. Both species were found to exhibit significant differences in floral volatilomes, protein contents, antioxidant enzyme activities, total flavonoids, and total phenolic contents between spring and autumn blooms. The bird-pollinated flowers of B. gymnorrhiza also showed considerable seasonal differences in floral anthocyanin and proline contents, indicating vulnerability of the post-anthesis open flowers to environmental factors. Contrarily to previous findings, B. gymnorrhiza floral bouquet appeared to be enriched in various classes of volatiles - dominated by sulphurous compounds in bud stage and terpenoids in open stage. Floral anthocyanins, contributing to the striking colouration of the calyx, were found to comprise cyanidin and delphinidin derivatives. Other glycosides of cyanidin and delphinidin were detected in H. fomes flowers, contributing to visual guides to potential food rewards for pollinating insects. Floral tissue in H. fomes was found to be protected by densely overlapping layers of stellate trichomes containing sesquiterpenoids as phytoprotectants. Comparison of the two floral species suggested that H. fomes flowering is optimized to oligohaline (but not freshwater) vernal conditions; whereas B. gymnorrhiza blooms are adapted for biologically enriched (including abundant herbivores and microbial growth), mesohaline forest habitats.

Bloodstained flowers and bloodthirsty flies.

This article is a Commentary on Heiduk et al. (2023), 239:1490–1504.

Pollen-Pistil Interaction in Response to Pollination Variants in Subtropical Japanese Plum (Prunus salicina Lindl.) Varieties.

The Japanese plum (Prunus salicina Lindl.) is a fruit tree globally cultivated in temperate regions of the world. Its floral biology and yield are affected by several factors, with issues related to self- and cross- (in) compatibility among varieties being emblematic of the whole Rosaceae family. The aim of this work was to elucidate the fruit set, dynamics of pollen tube growth in pistil, and yield and other fruiting attributes, in 'Satluj Purple' and 'Kala Amritsari', probably the most popular subtropical Japanese plum varieties in northern regions of India. Specifically, we examined the response of six different pollination variants, namely to self-pollination, open-pollination with the two cultivars located in adjacent rows, open-pollination with the two cultivars located in distant rows, manual cross-pollination, supplementary pollination, and floral bouquet. During the two years of the investigation, both plum cultivars showed good in vitro pollen germination (on average, above 50%) at different sucrose concentrations, with the highest values for the 'Satluj Purple' and for the 15% concentration. In vivo, the analysis of the pollen growth in the various sections of the style indicated the best performance when pistils of 'Satluj Purple' were pollinated by pollen grains of cv. 'Kala Amritsari'. Cross-pollination also registered faster growth of pollen tube in pistil with the lowest number of incompatible pollen tubes compared to open- and self-pollination. From the productive point of view, cross-pollination showed the most pronounced results among the different pollination variants, with the highest initial fruit set (36.6%) and yield (28.0 kg/tree), and the shorter fruit development in 'Satluj Purple' (fruit set and yield in self-pollinated 'Satluj Purple' trees were 3.3% and 2.0 kg/tree, respectively). Conversely, the use of 'Satluj Purple' pollen for 'Kala Amritsari' showed poor results. Finally, in our study, 'Kala Amritsari' showed self-compatibility. We conclude that the main cause of poor fruit set in 'Satluj Purple' is self-incompatibility. The relevant genotypic-specific effects revealed by the analysis of the various pollination treatments also highlighted the importance of interplanting to increase fruit set and yield for subtropical Japanese plum varieties.

Valorization of floral foam waste via pyrolysis optimization for enhanced phenols recovery

Utilization of phenol formaldehyde foams is becoming increasingly widespread, especially in floral bouquets, generating toxic microplastics in the environment. The present study evaluated phenols recovery from floral foam waste (FFW) of floral bouquets through optimization of pyrolysis conditions. Compared to the biomass portion in the floral bouquet, FFW showed 55.1% higher carbon content, 56.9% lower nitrogen content, and 44.6% lower oxygen content, with the highest recorded calorific value of 27.43 MJ kg−1. Thermogravimetric analysis showed the relative thermal stability of FFW with gradual weight loss and numerous small peaks at 70 °C (representing short chain volatiles such as formaldehyde and phenol), 450 and 570 °C (due to phenolic and aromatic products release), indicating the richness of FFW with phenolic compounds. Optimization of pyrolysis conditions showed the highest significant biocrude yield of 36.0% at 700 °C for 20 min using FFW load of 2.5 g. However, optimization of phenolic production suggested 520 °C, 30 min, and 3.49 g FFW load as optimum conditions for high biocrude yield with enhanced phenolic proportion. Experimental results using the aforementioned conditions showed phenolics potential of 0.22 g phenolics/g FFW, with 78.8% phenolic compounds composed mainly of phenol and its methyl derivatives.

Sundowning, and: Loss/Exit, and: As My Husband Moves to Memory Care

Sundowning, and: Loss/Exit, and: As My Husband Moves to Memory Care Carla T. Griswold (bio) Sundowning with lines from Jennifer L. Knox This game is rigged to separate us,to leave you to your darkness alone.No one tried to stop mefrom carrying you on my back.It's shocking how light you have become,how content I am to move you acrossthe gravel to the next thing you need.The scritch scritch of my steps soundheavier than ever, sound prehistoricto my sensitive ear, as though I'm leadinga wounded mate to the watering hole.Drink, eat. The sun is going down.It's getting dark. Loss/Exit Say loss is a bed and a cloudless skyexchanged for a table and chairs,a shift that prepares the audience for what comes next. The actorplaying the wife enters the scenebearing a chair on one strong arm [End Page 103] and the actor playing the husbandpaces on stage wrappedin his own bedsheets. Or say loss is a layer of snowthat piles gently or evenheavily on a run of party lights. Note how its shape is determinedby time or temperature,how its craters and caverns threaten to fall from the light's wirewith the next gust of wind.Say loss persists with the garden statue, ice settling in her floral bouquet,her eyes and ears,the folds of her garments. Say the actor playing the wifegrieves in her chair, twisting tearsfrom her handkerchief. Say the actor playing the husbandexits the stage without her,his sheets trailing their corners. As My Husband Moves to Memory Care with lines from Belle Waring I wish I could say the storm breathingthrough the keyholeis just a whisper of change. [End Page 104] I wish I could raise a fingerto my mouth to quiet your doubts,to make you believe our separationto keep you safe, is preciselywhat we both need. It may seem to youthe tear of a saturated clifffalling into the river below. But witnessour bodies, the way my knees tuck intothe back of yours, how my mouthfinds the dip in your soft neckwhere I inhale the marrow of your bones.We've untangled our legsfrom the bedsheets, their stripesnow straightened from our once daily tussle.There are ways to grieve this.The storm will get loud, flash,then calm into a soft rain. [End Page 105] Carla T. Griswold Carla T. Griswold's work has appeared or is forthcoming in the San Pedro River Review, Kota Press Poetry Anthology (Vol. 1), the The Community of Writers Review, and on npr's Morning Edition. Her chapbook Missing Women was published by CJ Ink. She has received support from the Community of Writers and holds an mfa from Pacific University. She recently moved to an island in the Puget Sound where she enjoys cycling to find the best views of Mt. Rainier. Copyright © 2022 University of Nebraska Press

Geographical variation of floral scents in generalist entomophilous species with variable pollinator communities

Abstract Floral scents are considered major attractants for pollinator species and scent composition is likely to be under pollinator‐mediated selection. Relatively, few studies have investigated geographical variation in floral scents in plant species with generalist pollination, and little is known about the mechanism behind this variation, often interpreted as the result of local adaptation to pollinators without considering phenotypic plasticity. One possible way to investigate this question is to compare floral bouquets both in natural populations and in populations reared under controlled conditions. We compared the identity and proportions of volatile organic compounds (VOCs), collected on plants both in the field and in the greenhouse, emitted by four generalist plant species found in six calcareous grasslands distributed along an environmental and diversity gradient. We recorded pollinator visits in the field to document geographical variation of pollinator communities associated with each plant species. We then analysed the relation between VOCs and pollinator variation using a redundancy analysis (RDA). We found that VOC composition differed among species and among populations, but also between field and greenhouse. The RDA showed a significant effect of the variation in pollinator communities associated with the variation in the VOCs emission, even after removing potential confounding effects, suggesting some stability in the compounds attractive to a given pollinator species. However, only one species showed significant geographical differences among populations tested in both conditions, suggesting local genetic adaptation. Another species showed geographical variation in VOC proportion in the field, but these results were not confirmed by the greenhouse extractions, suggesting an effect of phenotypic plasticity. Our findings suggest that geographical variation of floral scent may, in some cases, be genetically based and possibly explained by pollinator‐mediated selection, even in generalist pollinated species, which represent the large majority of pollination systems. However, our results also showed significant phenotypic plasticity, suggesting that studies of floral volatiles must be conducted in natural populations to obtain a representative picture of the signal that can be potentially perceived by pollinators. A free Plain Language Summary can be found within the Supporting Information of this article.

Morphology and phytochemistry of Teucrium chamaedrys L. (Lamiaceae) cultivated at the Ghirardi Botanic Garden (Lombardy, Northern Italy)

Teucrium chamaedrys L. (Lamiaceae) cultivated at the Ghirardi Botanic Garden (Lombardy, Northern Italy) was studied through a four-level research approach: 1) micromorphological and 2) histochemical to describe the features of the glandular trichomes on the vegetative and reproductive organs and the chemical nature of their secretory products, by means of Light, Fluorescence and Scanning Electron Microscopy; 3) phytochemical, with the first characterization of the volatiles spontaneously emitted by leaves and flowers of samples of Italian origin by means of Head-Space Solid Phase Micro-Extraction (HS-SPME) coupled with Gas Chromatography–Mass Spectrometry (GC-MS); 4) ecological, through the combination of the morphological and phytochemical results with literature data concerning the ecology of the major volatile compounds.Three trichome morphotypes were observed, with a different distribution pattern on the vegetative and reproductive organs: peltates and short-stalked capitates, both ubiquitous on the whole plant, and long-stalked capitates, exclusive to the floral whorls. Both the peltates and the long-stalked capitates were recognized as the main sites of the terpene production. The HS-SPME analysis indicated that flowers displayed the most complex qualitative profile. Indeed, the vegetative and floral bouquets showed the predominance of sesquiterpene hydrocarbons and shared the main compounds, i.e., β-caryophyllene, γ-muurolene, and β-cubebene. From the literature data, a prevailing defensive action was highlighted both at the vegetative and reproductive organs level, along with the potential seductive role played by the floral bouquet.

Floral attraction and flower visitors of a subcanopy, tropical rainforest tree, Fontainea picrosperma.

Flowering plants in tropical rainforests rely heavily on pollen vectors for successful reproduction. Research into pollination systems in tropical rainforests is dominated by canopy species, while subcanopy plant–pollinator interactions remain under‐represented. The microclimate beneath the rainforest canopy is characterized by low light levels and is markedly different from the canopy environment that receives more light energy.We studied the floral attractants and floral visitors of a dioecious, subcanopy tree, Fontainea picrosperma (Euphorbiaceae), in the Wet Tropics bioregion of northern Queensland, Australia.We found that wind pollination is rare and male and female flowers do not produce nectar. Female flowers are likely pollinated due to their perceptual similarity to pollen‐offering male flowers. Female flowers had the same scent profile as male flowers, and floral scent was an important floral attractant that acted to regulate pollinator behavior. The two most abundant scent compounds present in the floral bouquet were benzyl alcohol and 4‐oxoisophorone. These compounds are ubiquitous in nature and are known to attract a wide variety of insects. Both day‐time and night‐time pollinators contributed to successful pollen deposition on the stigma, and diurnal flower visitors were identified from several orders of insects including beetles, flies, predatory wasps, and thrips. Fontainea picrosperma is therefore likely to be pollinated by a diverse array of small insects.Synthesis. Our data indicate that F. picrosperma has a generalist, entomophilous pollination syndrome. The rainforest subcanopy is a distinctive environment characterized by low light levels, low or turbulent wind speeds, and relatively high humidity. Female flowers of F. picrosperma exhibit cost‐saving strategies by not producing nectar and mimicking the smell of reward‐offering male flowers. Insects opportunistically forage on or inhabit flowers, and pollination occurs from a pool of small insects with low energy requirements that are found beneath the rainforest canopy.

Spatial variation in scent emission within flowers

Floral scent is considered an important long‐distance signal that attracts pollinators, but also has been suggested to function at shorter distances such as within‐flower nectar guides or as a defense against antagonists. Indeed, in some species floral scent production and emission show spatial patterns of variation within flowers, as certain compounds are exclusively emitted from specific floral tissues. In other species, the different volatile organic compounds that constitute the floral bouquet are emitted evenly from the entire flower. Here, we summarize the current evidence on floral scent variation within flowers by combining a literature review of published data on tissue‐level floral scent variation (41 species) with floral scent dissections (17 species). For each species, we recorded the total number of volatile compounds separately and grouped in major chemical classes. To facilitate comparisons across diverse species, we compared volatiles emitted by 1) the whole flower, 2) the visual floral tissues (i.e. petals and colored structures), 3) non‐visual floral tissues (i.e. green parts and reproductive structures), as well as 4) the compounds emitted by both visual and non‐visual tissues. Results show that floral scent variation is frequent, but by no means ubiquitous, occurring in species from distantly related groups. We discuss the two main functional hypotheses promoting floral scent variation within flowers, i.e. as a pollinator attractant at short‐distances or a defensive function against antagonists, together with non‐functional hypotheses (e.g. pleiotropic effects, ecological costs). We point out further directions on this topic and suggest experimental approaches testing the attractiveness of compounds emitted by different floral parts alone and in combination with other floral signals. Our synthesis provides a foundation for future studies on the functional ecology of floral scent and reinforces the idea of high complexity in floral chemical signals.

A Step-by-Step Guide to Mosquito Electroantennography.

Female mosquitoes are the deadliest animals on earth, claiming the lives of more than 1 million people every year due to pathogens they transmit when acquiring a blood-meal. To locate a host to feed on, mosquitoes rely on a wide range of sensory cues, including visual, mechanical, thermal, and olfactory. The study details a technique, electroantennography (EAG), that allows researchers to assess whether the mosquitoes can detect individual chemicals and blends of chemicals in a concentration-dependent manner. When coupled with gas-chromatography (GC-EAG), this technique allows to expose the antennae to a full headspace/complex mixture and determines which chemicals present in the sample of interest, the mosquito can detect. This is applicable to host body odors as well as plant floral bouquets or other ecologically relevant odors (e.g., oviposition sites odorants). Here, we described a protocol that permits long durations of preparation responsiveness time and is applicable to both female and male mosquitoes from multiple genera, including Aedes, Culex, Anopheles, and Toxorhynchites mosquitoes. As olfaction plays a major part in mosquito-host interactions and mosquito biology in general, EAGs and GC-EAG can reveal compounds of interest for the development of new disease vector control strategies (e.g., baits). Complemented with behavioral assays, the valence (e.g., attractant, repellent) of each chemical can be determined.

Floral glands in myophilous and sapromyophilous species of Pleurothallidinae (Epidendroideae, Orchidaceae)—osmophores, nectaries, and a unique sticky gland

Pleurothallidinae orchids have been the focus of many multidisciplinary studies due to their challenging systematics and taxonomy. The synapomorphies already recognized in the group are mostly related to floral characters, the last proposed being the occurrence of alkanes in the floral fragrance. The composition of the floral bouquet varied significantly among the studied species, leading us to hypothesize that the variations in volatiles emitted could be linked to the structure of osmophores, especially when comparing the myophilous and sapromyophilous pollination syndromes. Sepals and labellum at different developmental stages of seven Brazilian Pleurothallidinae species were examined using light, scanning, and transmission electron microscopy. Nectar reabsorption was assessed by Lucifer Yellow CH tracer and imaged under confocal microscopy. Nectaries were restricted to the labellum of the myophilous species, whereas osmophores occurred in the dorsal and/or lateral sepals, varying according to species. In the sapromyophilous species, floral nectaries were not detected and osmophores were restricted to the labellum. Osmophore structure was correlated with the volatiles emitted, being the trichome osmophores notably present on the sepals of both myophilous species that possess nectaries. For the first time, we demonstrated reabsorption of the released nectar in Pleurothallidinae and the occurrence of a unique gland named sticky-exudate glands, which occurred in the lateral sepals and labellum of Echinosepala aspasicensis, a sapromyophilous species, that released a heterogeneous exudate composed of polysaccharides and lipids. Similar glands have been reported in Bulbophyllum, highlighting the convergence between both groups.

Floral traits and chemical cues associated with rock bee (Apis dorsata Fabricius) for the host selection in West Bengal, India

In the present work, bee foraging plants were determined by palynological analysis of colony stored samples (honey and pollen) of Apis dorsata collected from southern West Bengal, India. Then flowering phenology and pollen morphologies were described to evaluate the forage preference of the bee species. In addition, chemical cues were analysed using gas chromatography-mass spectrometry (GC-MS). Foraging strategy of the bee species was profitable in that almost all the bee-visited plants were utilised for both nectar and pollen sources. The bee species became generalist visitor of several plants having diverse life form, flower characters and pollen morphologies. However, most of the bee-visited plants were of trees with synchronous type of flowering. Most plants had small-sized, yellow, cream and white coloured flowers and pollen was openly presented. We did not find any patterns in the morphological traits of bee collected pollen, though the pollen types were predominantly of medium sized with trizonocolporate apertural pattern and reticulate surface ornamentation. Floral volatile organic compounds (VOCs) of bee visited plants were also diversified. Compounds frequently found in the floral VOC bouquets were amphetamine-3-methyl; butane, 2-cyclopropyl; 2,3-butanediol; cyclohexan, 1-methyl-5-(1-methylethyl); d-limonene; methyl (2E)-2-methoxy-2-butenoate; phenol, 4-[2-(methylamino)ethyl]; phthalic acid, di(2-propylpentyl)ester; propanamide, N-(aminocarbonyl) and pyrrolo[1,2-a]pyrazine-1,4-dione, hexahydro-3-(2-methylpropyl). In conclusion, floral traits and chemical cues of plants influence the host selection specificity (to collect floral rewards) of the rock bees.

Tools to Tie: Flower Characteristics, VOC Emission Profile, and Glandular Trichomes of Two Mexican Salvia Species to Attract Bees.

A plant can combine physical and chemical tools to interact with other organisms. Some are designed for pollinator attraction (i.e., colors and volatile organic compounds-VOCs); others can act to discourage herbivores (i.e., non-glandular trichomes). Few studies fully address available tools in a single species; notwithstanding, this information can be pivotal in understanding new interactions out of the home range. We characterized flower traits, emission profiles of constitutive compounds from flowers and leaves, micro-morphology of the glandular trichomes, and listed flower visitors of two Mexican bird-pollinated Salvia species (S. blepharophylla and S. greggii), growing in an Italian botanical garden. Flowers were highly variable in their morphometric characteristics. In both species, four trichome morphotypes with similar histochemistry and distribution were documented for leaves and flowers except the calyx abaxial side. The vegetative emission profiles were qualitatively more complex than the floral ones; however, common compounds occurring in high relative percentages were β-caryophyllene and germacrene D. Floral bouquets were dominated by limonene and β-pinene in S. greggii and by 1,8-cineole in S. blepharophylla. Two potential (non-bird) pollinators were especially abundant: small bees belonging to the genus Lasioglossum and large bees belonging to the species Xylocopa violacea. Our study highlights the plasticity of these plants, as well as tools that can be conveniently used to establish novel interactions.

Recognition and Characteristics of Purchasing Floral Bouquets of the Consumers at Graduation and Entrance Ceremonies

The present study surveyed 242 Korean consumers to identify the characteristics of consumer awareness and purchasing habits of floral bouquet products during graduation and entrance ceremonies. According to the results of the survey, consumers purchased floral bouquets during the graduation and entrance ceremony season mainly in order to celebrate a special day with family and friends as the guiding active reason. Consumers possessed more experience with purchasing floral bouquets for the graduation and entrance ceremonies for elementary, middle, and high school, than for kindergarten or university. Consumers purchased the floral bouquets typically one to two hours preceding the event, at the street vendor. Consumers preferred floral bouquets with the prices between 10,000 and 50,000 KRW, and a medium (21 - 50 cm in diameter) size of floral bouquets. The most important price decision factor for floral bouquets for consumers was the quality of the floral bouquet product, and furthermore, the overall bouquet design was the most important characteristic in terms of product selection. According to the age groups, teenagers preferred vivid and colorful cut flower at higher levels that the age category of 30s and older, while the age group of 30s preferred a larger cut flower than the 20s age category. The reasons why the consumers did not purchase floral bouquets were mainly untrustworthy price and short vase life of the products, thus fostering dissatisfaction in consumers. Consumers seldom purchased the replacement floral products including preserved flowers, dried flowers, and plastic flowers as a substitute for floral bouquets during the graduation and entrance ceremonies, but they tended to purchase the replacement floral products due to their longer lifespan and easier maintenance levels. From the results gathered, a proper public education and promotion on the product price and postharvest of cut flowers would be necessary to enhance the consumers’ recognition enhancement of floral products.

Analysis of Volatile Organic Compounds from the Aerial Parts of Medicinal Plant, Galium verum

The Galium verum herb, (Rubiaceae family) is well represented in the spontaneous Romanian flora. She is one of the most used plants in traditional medicine. Our research aimed to investigate the chemical volatile profile in fresh, dried and essential oil of Gallium verum using SPME and hydrodistillation techniques, followed by GC-MS analysis. Characterization of volatile compounds composition by SPME �GC-MS technique presented din this paper is the first study on fresh and dried of Galium verum plant to our knowledge. Galium verum fresh flower floral bouquet is given by monoterpenes (73,5%), sesquiterpenes (10,16%), esters (10,26%) and others(5.87%). The floral bouquet of Gallium verum dried flower, contains mainly: aldehydes (35.48%) monoterpenes (35.48%), alcohols (11.96%), sesquiterpenes, (3.71%), esters (3.14%) and others (10.11%). Sixty components were identified in the galium essential oil.

What’s in a name? Scent brand names, olfactory imagery, and purchase intention

PurposeThis paper aims to examine how olfactory imagery, triggered by scent brand names prior to smelling, influences scented-product purchase intention.Design/methodology/approachFive studies were conducted. Logistic regression analysis was used to predict likelihood of olfactory imagery formation. ANOVA and t-test analyses were used for scent brand name group comparisons, and serial mediation analysis was used to test how scent brand names impact purchase intention through olfactory imagery vividness and the (dis)confirmation between imagined (i.e. expected) and experienced scents.FindingsScent name familiarity stimulates olfactory imagery formation. Scent brand name specificity (e.g. “Lavender Bouquet” vs. “Floral Bouquet”) influences purchase intention, with specific names leading to lower purchase intention, because they generate vivid olfactory imagery and induce a disconfirmation between imagined and experienced scents.Practical implicationsBranding scents on products should be a strategic product design decision. Surprisingly, although specific scent brand names trigger vivid olfactory imagery and precise scent expectations, they mitigate purchase intention and thus are riskier. General scent brand names are safer.Originality/valueThis research contributes by extending the literature on the effect of verbal cues on scent perception by considering the role of scent brand name specificity on purchase intent. It also adds to work on how olfactory imagery influences purchase intention by incorporating olfactory imagery vividness. Finally, it proposes and tests an underlying cognitive mechanism to explain the relationship between scent brand names and purchase intention.

Molecular cloning, characterization and expression analysis of LoTPS2 and LoTPS4 involved in floral scent formation in oriental hybrid Lilium variety ‘Siberia’

Lilies are a commercially significant cut flower worldwide due not only to their elegant shape but also to their appealing scent. Among Lilium varieties, Lilium 'Siberia' is a cultivar that is prominent and highly favored by consumers due to its snowy white color and strong floral scent. Here, two terpene synthase genes (LoTPS2 and LoTPS4) that are responsible for floral scent production in Lilium 'Siberia' were cloned and functionally characterized. Recombinant LoTPS2 specifically catalyzed the formation of (E, E)-α-farnesene from FPP. Recombinant LoTPS4 is a multiproduct enzyme that produces D-limonene and β-myrcene as major volatile compounds and β-phellandrene, (+)-4-carene and 3-carene as minor products from GPP. Furthermore, LoTPS4 generates trans-α-bergamotene as a major product and di-epi-α-cedrene, α-cubebene and (E)-β-farnesene as minor compounds from FPP. Subcellular localization analysis using GFP fusion constructs revealed that LoTPS2 was localized in the cytosol, whereas LoTPS4 was localized in plastids. Real-time PCR analysis showed that LoTPS2 was highly expressed in the petals and sepals of the flower, while LoTPS4 was highly expressed in the filament of the flower. Moreover, mechanical wounding of flowers revealed that LoTPS2 showed a strong response to wounding via a rapid increase in its mRNA transcript level. Our results will assist scientists in exploring the molecular mechanisms of terpene biosynthesis in this species and will provide new insight into the biotechnological modification of the floral bouquet in Lilium.

Consumer Preferences and Purchase Perceptions by the Picture Image Types of Floral Products - Focused on Image-Based SNS (Instagram)

This study surveyed 311 adult consumers in Korea to investigate their preferences and purchase perceptions of floral products through the social network services (SNS) market. The consumers responded that they favored purchasing a floral product via SNS mainly because the products were trendy in design, with a significantly high score among those in t heir 20s. Among the a ge g roups, the consumers in their 20s and 30s found the prices of floral products sold via SNS less reasonable than the consumers in their 40s. Those who were in their 50s or older showed lower confidence in the quality of floral products and freshness of flowers sold via SNS. The consumers said that the picture images of the floral products posted on SNS helped guide their choices, illustrating consumers’ positive views of the images of f loral products on SNS. Although the consumers were aware that the floral product images were retouched, they tended to assume that the actual products would be s imilar to the posted p icture images. As for the impact of image characteristics on the consumers’ purchase decisions of floral products, it was discovered that the respondents attached considerable importance to the overall atmosphere. The preferred backgrounds of the f loral product images slightly varied between floral bouquets and floral basket products. As for the composition preferences of images, most consumers preferred images that were taken from the front, for both floral bouquets and floral baskets. The consumers preferred bright images, with high chroma in color, whereas they disliked images with low brightness. Based on the semantic differential scale, the consumers used favorable terms, such as abundant, refined, high-class, and elegant, to describe bright images, regardless of color saturation. In contrast, dark images were generally perceived more negatively. Although the consumers’ preferences and emotional responses to picture images of floral products varied according to the background, composition, and retouching effects of the images, no significant differences were detected in responses among different genders, age brackets, and vocational g roups. Overall, w hen marketing floral products through SNS, product information with images appealing to consumers’ preferences would support their purchase decisions.

Floral volatiles structure plant–pollinator interactions in a diverse community across the growing season

Abstract While the importance of floral odours for pollinator attraction relative to visual cues is increasingly appreciated, how they structure community‐level plant–pollinator interactions is poorly understood. Elucidating the functional roles of flowering plant species with respect to their floral volatile organic compounds (VOCs) and how those roles vary over the growing season is an initial step towards understanding the contribution of floral VOCs to plant–pollinator interaction structure. We sampled the floral VOCs, phenologies and bee visitors of naturally growing plants in a montane meadow in the Northern Rocky Mountains of USA in order to acquire a base understanding of how floral VOCs and other plant traits may structure plant–pollinator interactions across the growing season. We expected forb species with floral VOCs that were original (far from the community mean) and unique (far from the nearest neighbour) would have few pollinating partners (i.e. specialists), while forbs with non‐original or highly variable floral VOCs would form the generalist core of interactors, thereby contributing to network nestedness (specialists interacting with nested subsets of generalists). Network modularity (patterns of distinct, highly connected subnetworks) could be influenced by groups of pollinators that are attracted to or repelled by certain floral bouquets. Species blooming in early spring emitted similar floral VOC blends containing generalist attractants, whereas floral VOC complexity was highest in mid to late summer. Forb species varied in the originality, uniqueness, and intraspecific variation (i.e. dispersion) of their floral VOCs, indicating the potential for different functional roles in plant–pollinator networks. Specifically, the originality, uniqueness and dispersion of forb species’ floral VOCs increased across the growing season. Floral VOCs influenced forb interactions with pollinators. Floral VOCs contributed to the nested structure, but not modular structure, of community‐level plant–pollinator network structure. Forb species with more original floral VOCs were less connected, while forb species emitting more compounds and with higher intraspecific variation in floral VOCs were more connected to pollinators. These findings show that floral scent plays important roles in structuring bee–forb interactions and guiding seasonal patterns in complex communities. Understanding seasonal patterns in floral VOCs may have important implications for plant–pollinator interactions among communities differing in species composition, or as shifts occur in suites of co‐flowering species due to climate change. A free Plain Language Summary can be found within the Supporting Information of this article.

Osmophores of Caryocar brasiliense (Caryocaraceae): a particular structure of the androecium that releases an unusual scent.

Caryocar brasiliense is a flagship species of the Brazilian Cerrado. It produces flowers with a strong peculiar scent, which are pollinated by bats and occasionally moths with short mouthparts. However, the cues responsible for attracting these nocturnal pollinators remain unknown. We aimed to identify osmophores of C. brasiliense, describe the ultrastructure of the cells involved in the synthesis and release of floral odour, and identify the constituents of the floral bouquet. We performed field observations and histochemical and ultrastructural analyses of flowers focusing on the androecium. Gas chromatography-mass spectrometry was used to analyse the scents emitted. Filament epidermal cells were found to possess an unusual shape and be responsible for the main production and release of odour. These cells, called foraminous cells, are elongate and possess pores where their cell walls are abruptly thin. The cuticle is practically absent over the pores, which facilitates odour emission. The foraminous cells have conspicuous nuclei and organelle-rich cytoplasm where oil droplets can be seen prior to anthesis. The features of these cells remain similar during anthesis, but many vesicles fuse with the plasma membrane and the number of oil droplets in the cytosol decreases. Twenty-nine components were found in the scent, especially fatty acid derivatives and N- and S-bearing compounds. Our analyses revealed that the androecium of C. brasiliense has a particular structure that acts as an osmophore. The scent from the androecium resembles that of the entire flower, which is an unprecedented finding for a plant with single flowers as the pollination unit.