Floor Tiles Research Articles

Understanding the Common Defects in Commercial Buildings: Types, Causes and Remedial Actions

Commercial building maintenance management constitutes a pertinent issue of global concern for all related stakeholders. In Malaysia, the management of commercial building maintenance plays a crucial role in achieving the goal of providing safety to occupants and the building itself. However, there is a paucity of studies that have comprehensively explored all dimensions of commercial building defects in relation to maintenance management. This research was also conducted to identify and analyze the typical defects that occur in commercial structures, understand their underlying causes, assess their impact on safety, functionality and propose effective remedial actions. The study utilized a qualitative approach for data collection. The findings indicated that cracked floors, floor tile failures, wall tiles failure, damaged ceiling, paint peeling and faulty light bulbs were some of the flaws that degrade commercial building. The study’s outcome revealed that defects not only deface the aesthetic appearance of the commercial buildings but also inhibit the functionality of the buildings and depreciate the overall satisfaction. The research limitations include using commercial buildings (shopping complexes or malls) that have been operating for more than 20 years. This study offers invaluable insights for maintenance organizations and maintenance department staff who are genuinely interested in improving commercial buildings’ maintenance management to optimize staff’s performance and enhance the user satisfaction of the buildings in Malaysia and globally.

Characterization of Some Local Clay Minerals and Fabrication into Ceramic Floor-Tiles

Clay minerals deposits, which include, kaolin, ball-clay, fireclay and zircon, were investigated and used in fabrication of ceramic floor tiles. X-ray diffractometer (XRD-6100, Japan), was used to examine the various compositions and structures of the clay samples. 2000 grams of 0.005 mm grain size of each sample were homogeneously mixed into dough, compressed in metallic mould of 12 mm × 36 mm dimension, and allowed to dry for about 5 hours. Kiln draught oven, at 1200°C was set for glazing and firing of the moulded tiles, to ensure glossy appearance, smoothness and improved strength. XRD test showed higher content of alumina (Al<sub>2</sub>O<sub>3</sub>) and Silicon (iv) oxide (SiO<sub>2</sub>) in all the clay samples. The percentage composition of Critobalite, Diphosphorus trioxide (P<sub>2</sub>O<sub>3</sub>), Potassium Oxide (K<sub>2</sub>O) and Sodium Oxide (Na<sub>2</sub>O), were reasons for their excellent workability, improved mechanical and rheological properties of ceramics floor-tiles. Water absorption, chemical resistance, shrinkage properties of the different ceramic tiles were compare to some commercial products. This investigation had shown that locally available clay minerals could be fully integrated into ceramic industries to reduce cost of ceramic importation and create job opportunities for youths.

Sustainable approach to raw clays for ceramic and refractory applications: insights from updated traditional ternary diagrams

Abstract The study analysed 93 samples from four Serbian clay deposits to determine their suitability for ceramics production. The samples were mainly composed of illite and kaolinite. Ternary diagrams were used to classify the samples and evaluate their applicability. Winkler's diagrams, ternary graphs and mineralogical compositions were analysed. The results showed a broader area in these graphs than previously determined for structural ceramics, as well as the potential of these clays for ceramic production. The study used dry-milled, hydraulically semi-dry, pressed and fired samples to assess water absorption and flexural strength and statistical analysis to determine the key parameters influencing final product quality, including that of refractory, wall and floor tiles. This paper evaluates the raw clay materials’ applicability in ceramic production, promoting sustainable use through rapid initial tests, energy savings through dry milling and ecologically sound principles through resource-efficient evaluation.

Marble-Looking Fired Clay Tiles Produced by Utilizing Local Clay and Glass Cullet

This research is aim at developing marble-looking fired clay tile by utilizing waste glass cullet (CGC) mixed up with local plastic clay, sediment soil, and laterite clay. Boric oxide is also used as sintering aid. The experimental formulation is divided into 3 groups (A, B, and C) with 27 formulas. Test samples are moulded at 100 bar by Uni-axial pressing in dimension 50 x 100 x 7 mm and fried at temperature 850 °C. The initial results show that all formulas can develop marble texture and achieve Thai Industrial Standard TIS 2508-2555. Reducing firing temperature to 800 °C is the further investigation. However, formulas consisting 90% glass cullet are not selected, due to difficulty of molding workpieces. The final results of firing 800o C show that formula A6 containing 15% Plastic clay, 85% glass cullet, 2% boric oxide has the highest bending strength and lowest water absorption (<1%). Its properties are similar to formula C6 containing 15% laterite soil 85% glass cullet, 2% boric oxide. They can pass Thai Industrial Standard TIS 2508-2555 Floor Tiles BIb. Analyzing microstructure the fired specimens of these formulas by Scanning Electron Microscope has found glassy phases and dense matrix structures. Furthermore, Nepheline, Quartz, Cristobalite, Wollastonite, Devitrite, and Albite are identified by X-Ray Diffractometer. It can be summarized that marble texture surface fired clay tile can be developed by utilizing waste glass and low cost local materials.

Enhancing Power and Thermal Gradient of Solar Photovoltaic Panels with Torched Fly-Ash Tiles for Greener Buildings

Solar photovoltaic (PV) panels that use polycrystalline silicon cells are a promising technique for producing renewable energy, although research on the cells’ efficiency and thermal control is still ongoing. This experimental research aims to investigate a novel way to improve power output and thermal performance by combining solar PV panels with burned fly-ash tiles. Made from burning industrial waste, torched fly ash has special qualities that make it useful for architectural applications. These qualities include better thermal insulation, strengthened structural integrity, and high energy efficiency. Our test setup shows that when solar PV panels are combined with torched fly-ash tiles, power generation rises by 7% and surface temperature decreases by 3% when compared to standard panels. The enhanced PV efficiency is ascribed to the outstanding thermal insulation properties of fly ash tiles and their capacity to control panel temperature. To ensure longevity and safety in building applications, the tiles employed in this study had a water absorption rate of 5.37%, flexural strength of 2.95 N/mm2, and slip resistance at 38 km/h. Furthermore, we find improved structural resilience and lower cooling costs when up to 30% of the sand in floor tiles is replaced with torched fly ash, which makes this method especially appropriate for sustainable buildings. Key performance indicators that show how effective these tiles are in maximizing energy use in buildings include thermal emissivity (0.874), solar reflectance (0.8), and solar absorption (0.256). While supporting more ecofriendly building techniques, this study highlights the advantages of utilizing burned fly ash in solar PV systems: enhanced power generation and thermal comfort. The main results open a greater potential for fly ash use in different building materials. The use of torched fly ash in building materials enhances thermal insulation and structural integrity while lowering cooling costs, making it an ideal choice for eco-friendly construction and highlighting the potential for further research into environmentally responsible, energy-efficient solutions.

Evaluation of the potential use of chicken eggshell waste to manufacture dense/porous bi-layered red floor tiles

Chicken eggshell waste is a significant global source of waste, which calls for sustainable valorization approaches. In light of this, this study introduced a novel approach for the valorization of chicken eggshell waste as a porogenic material to manufacture dense/porous bi-layered red floor tiles. Chicken eggshell waste was used as a substitute for the red floor tile paste by up to 25 wt% in the porous bottom layer. The bi-layered red floor tile specimens were produced by double uniaxial pressing and fired at 1220 ºC. The effect of chicken eggshell waste on the technical properties (linear shrinkage, apparent density, apparent porosity, water absorption, and three-point flexural strength) and fired microstructure of the bi-layered red floor tile specimens was examined. The results indicated that the chicken eggshell waste, mainly composed of CaCO3, influenced the densification behavior and technical properties of the bi-layered ceramic tiles. The findings also suggested that up to 10 wt% of chicken eggshell waste can be used to produce lightweight bi-layered red floor tiles, which can reduce the fired density by up to about 5.4 %, meeting technical requirements comparable to low water absorption floor tiles (BIb group - ISO 13006). These new dense/porous bi-layered red-firing floor tiles are promising for applications in ventilated facades, thus contributing to sustainable development.

Tiebas Castle’ tuiles vernissées: Characterization, raw clay provenance, and manufacturing technology

Tiebas Castle was built between 1254 and 1264 as a royal residence of the kings of Navarre. The Castle was decorated with architectural luxuries imported from the French court. Some decorative elements of this French style are the polychrome roof tiles, called tuiles vernissées; and the glazed floor tiles, called carreaux de pavement. Both are the unique that have been found in the Iberian Peninsula. Elemental and mineralogical analysis allowed us to distinguish two different types of pastes that were used for both tuiles vernissées and carreaux de pavement: yellowish and reddish. The reddish paste was composed mainly of quartz, and to a lesser extent of haematite and illite. The yellow pastes were very rich in calcite and other calcium-bearing minerals (gehlenite, anorthite, diopside or wollastonite) and poorer in quartz and haematite. The different colour tones of the yellow paste samples allowed them to be classified into five subgroups (YP-1, YP-2, YP-3, YP-4, and YP-5). This classification turned out to coincide with a somewhat different mineral composition. The study of the mineral phases newly formed (gehlenite, anorthite, diopside and wollastonite) or destroyed (illite) during firing allowed us to estimate the maximum firing temperature of each of the subgroups. The temperature ranges for each subgroup were as follows: 750–800 °C (YP-5), 850–900 °C (YP-4), 900–925 °C (YP-3), 925–950 °C (YP-2), and 950–1000 °C (YP-1). The study of its possible raw materials allowed us to identify that the yellow pastes from tuiles vernissées and carreaux de pavement were prepared from a mixture of two clays. One of them was the decalcification clay (A15 clay) with which they also made the reddish pastes. The other component of the mixture was the marl from Castle hill. The proportion that the artisans used of both raw materials was 1:2 (twice as much marl as decalcification clay).

Selection of sustainable construction material from recycled waste plastics by q-rung orthopair fuzzy SWARA-MABAC approach

Recycling of waste plastics and agro-industrial waste for the development of sustainable polymeric composites is recognized as a viable approach to overcome the detrimental environmental effects of plastics waste. Despite of immense potential of sustainable composites in the Circular Economy (CE), its implementation is still insignificant due to the lack of an effective material selection approach. The existence of several influencing aspects in the process of material selection considers it a multi-criteria decision making (MCDM) problem. In the present work, an Aggregation Operator (AO) based integrated Stepwise Weight Assessment Ratio Analysis (SWARA) and Multi-attributive Border Approximation Area Comparison (MABAC) has been proposed to deal with the issues of material selection for polymer based sustainable composites. Moreover, q-rung orthopair fuzzy numbers (q-ROPFNs) have been implemented to tackle the uncertainty in the information. The effectiveness of the proposed approach has been confirmed by different comparative and sensitivity investigations. The developed composites have shown excellent properties whereas the responses of the materials vary invariably with compositions. The proposed method has identified the amalgamation of 10 wt percentage of rice husk ash and 10 wt percentage of sand with 80 wt percentage of high-density polyethylene (HDPE) as an appropriate material for the development of sustainable floor tiles as the composites resulted to optimum mechanical performances and minimum abrasive wear. The proposed model gives reliable and robust results and is sensitive to the criteria weights and mathematical parameters. The outcome of the research has exposed that the suggested mathematical approach can be effectively applied for material selection of sustainable polymeric composites for different applications.

Eco-friendly and Affordable Composites Based on Waste Rubber Loaded with Polypropylene and Bagasse Fibers for Flexible Flooring Tiles

Eco-friendly and Affordable Composites Based on Waste Rubber Loaded with Polypropylene and Bagasse Fibers for Flexible Flooring Tiles

Solar energy utilization for underfloor heating system in residential buildings

In this paper, the thermal performance of a solar energy system for heating a residential building is experimentally investigated. In this system, the solar thermal energy is supplied via a flat plate solar collector that provides the heated water into a small-scale chamber, that represents the residential building. The experimental setup is installed in Jouf University campus (Latitude: 29° 47′ 1.9” N, Longitude: 40° 2′ 42.2” E) located at Al-Jouf Province, Saudi Arabia. In this experiment, the hot water supplied from solar collector is mixed with water in the storage tank, then extracted from bottom of the tank to be circulated in a copper tube loop located underneath the floor tiles of the chamber and hence increases the chamber’s air temperature. Two circulation pumps are installed in the system, one to circulate the water between solar collector and storage tank and the other to circulate the water between storage tank and chamber. Measurements of several parameters were conducted to evaluate the overall thermal efficiency of the system. The experimental results showed an average efficiency of 51 %, when operating the system for eight-hours duration in the winter season. Additionally, an economic assessment was carried out to confirm the system’s feasibility. This assessment demonstrated that the constructed system is economically feasible, with an estimated benefit-cost ratio of 1.42.

Effect of particle size distribution on the properties of celsian based glazes

AbstractThe microstructure and surface properties of ceramic glaze are influenced by chemical composition, particle size distribution, glaze application conditions, and firing parameters. This study specifically focused on the influence of glaze particle size distribution on the thermal behavior, microstructure, and surface appearance of barium frit based ceramic glaze in the floor tile firing process. The investigation involved examining the impact of four distinct particle size dimensions (d50: 5.7 μm, 6.8 μm, 7.5 μm, 10.9 μm) on the glaze properties by using hot stage microscopy, X-ray diffraction (XRD), scanning electron microscopy (SEM), color and gloss measurements. The studies indicated that celsian is the dominant phase in the glaze structure. The sintering and softening temperatures of glazes decreased with the increase of milling time. A decrease in the particle size of the glaze slurry increased the whiteness index. As the average particle size (d50) of the glaze decreased, the number of crystals was also increased. The investigation results also suggested a relation between specular reflection and milling time. As the milling time extended, there was a corresponding increase in the magnitude of glossiness.

Retraction Note: Synergy of RHA and silica sand on physico-mechanical and tribological properties of waste plastic-reinforced thermoplastic composites as floor tiles.

Retraction Note: Synergy of RHA and silica sand on physico-mechanical and tribological properties of waste plastic-reinforced thermoplastic composites as floor tiles.

Analisis Biaya dan Dampak Lingkungan dalam Proses Produksi Keramik: Studi Kasus UKM ABC

ABC Ceramic Factory conducted the process of producing ceramic floor tiles, distributing them to ceramic shops, and then selling them to consumers. Several processes or stages, from manufacturing to distribution, still leave abandoned waste. This research aims to determine what costs in making ceramics at the ABC Ceramic Factory can be reduced to save on company costs. The methods used are Green Quality Function Deployment and AHP Methods. Based on the data processing results, the ceramic manufacturing process is efficient, and the ceramic color is long-lasting because it has the expected satisfaction values of 0.661 and 0.538. Then, recycling waste is the highest technical response, with a value of 0.24. At the same time, the production process is the stage that produces the most waste, with a value of 0.29, and raw material costs are the costs that can be reduced the most, with the highest value of 4+2-. Therefore, the ABC Ceramic Factory must improve from the manufacturing process to the final product.

Exposure of Young Children to Permethrin and Cypermethrin Insecticides in the Residential Environment.

The aims of this study were to evaluate the exposure to permethrin and cypermethrin of young children aged between 2 and 5 years in Nakhon Pathom and Sing Buri provinces, Thailand. A questionnaire that included general demographic information, household characteristics, insecticide usage and exposure-related behavior in children was used to interview parents or family caregivers. Permethrin and cypermethrin concentrations on floor surfaces and children's hands, as well as their urinary metabolites, were analyzed by gas chromatography coupled with mass spectrometry. The results showed that permethrin and cypermethrin were detected in 62% and 83% of the children's hand wipe samples, with geometric mean (GM) levels of 0.02 µg and 0.04 µg, respectively. Permethrin and cypermethrin were detected in 79% and 93% of floor surface wipe samples, with GM levels of 0.90 µg/m2, and 1.49 µg/m2, respectively. For children's urine, the GM concentrations of cis- and trans-DCCA, 3-PBA, and total pyrethroid metabolites were 0.84, 0.31 and 1.23 nmol/g creatinine, respectively. This study found that household insecticide product usage and having a tile floor were associated with increased permethrin concentrations on the children's hands and floor surfaces. However, cypermethrin concentrations on floor surfaces were significantly higher in families using aerosol insecticide sprays and insecticide products in the living room and bedroom. The predictors of the total pyrethroid, DCCA and 3-PBA metabolites are permethrin on children's hands or floor surfaces and cypermethrin on floor surfaces.

Preparation of a moisture-permeable glazed tile to prevent indoor floor condensation

Condensation would occur on smooth tiled floors during the period from winter to spring after rainy or continuous wet days in the hot-humid climate. It is an effective passive approach to use moisture-permeable tiles for mitigating surface condensation on indoor floors. This study proposes a moisture-permeable glazed tile prepared by the conventional tile-making process. The base tile of the proposed glazed tile is primarily composed of kaolin, quartz and feldspar, with addition of soluble starch as a pore-forming agent before firing. The glaze layer is formed by spraying a slurry which is a mixture of a low-temperature glaze and the pore-forming agent (soluble starch). The present study investigated the impact of the pore-forming agent ratio on tile porosity, wet capacity, breaking strength, moisture permeability, and abrasion resistance. It was found that the increase of the pore-forming agent ratio in the base tile can enhance the porosity and moist capacity of the base tile, and weaken the breaking strength. Moreover, the increase of the pore-forming agent in the glaze can improve moisture permeability of the glaze and reduce abrasion resistance. Through iterative experiments, the ratio of the pore-forming agent was optimized as 7.5 wt% for the base tile and 10 wt% for the glaze layer under consideration of the balance between mechanical properties and moisture absorption/permeability. Moisture capacity, water absorption and porosity of the prepared glazed tile are 0.469 g/cm³, 25.7 % and 37.7 %, respectively. The compressive breaking strength is more than 600 N (the standard for floor tiles), and the abrasion resistance of the glazed surface reaches Level 2 (meeting the standard for indoor use). Furthermore, the observation in a high-humidity environment reveals that the moisture-permeable glazed tile is capable of controlling condensation on its surface throughout a 24 h-period.

Alternative material recommendation for facade cladding: High silica-containing stonepaste ceramics

This study investigated the potential of using stonepaste ceramics, which were widely preferred as a coating and decoration material on the facades of architectural buildings in ancient times and continues to be produced on a workshop scale today as a cladding material on building facades. Stonepaste ceramics, made from a mixture prepared with a high amount of crystalline quartz as well as frit, plastic clay, and bentonite raw materials, were hand-shaped and sintered at 930 °C after glazing. The physico-mechanical properties of stonepaste ceramics, their behaviour under various environmental conditions (resistance to chemicals, frost, and thermal shock), and their microstructures have been characterized. The characterization results were compared with the properties of commonly used facade cladding materials. It was determined that stonepaste ceramics had a very low firing shrinkage value (2.84 %) compared to that of other ceramic cladding materials, a higher water absorption value (11.79 %) than that of porcelain tiles and floor tiles, and close to wall tiles, and a flexural strength value (33.64MPa) higher than wall tiles and close to porcelain tiles despite the high-water absorption value. Ten cycles of thermal shock resistance showed that the body and glaze layer of the stonepaste ceramic material are well bonded to each other, and there is no significant thermal expansion mismatch between them. One hundred cycles of freeze-thaw conditions indicated that the stonepaste ceramic had good adhesion and thermal expansion compatibility between the glaze and the body but only chipping damage under the action of tensile forces caused by the freezing of water entering the pores of the body. In terms of behaviour against various chemicals, stonepaste ceramics were found to be highly resistant to high and low concentrations of household chemicals, swimming pool salts, and alkalis but less resistant to low concentrations of HCl and citric acid and high concentrations of HCl and lactic acid compared to other chemicals. The results show that stonepaste ceramics, despite their high-water absorption potential, have properties close to those of traditional ceramic tiles and, like these materials, can serve for significant periods in various environmental conditions when used as facade cladding. Consequently, it has been revealed that stonepaste ceramics can be used as a facade cladding material in sustainable, long-lasting, contemporary architectural facades thanks to their technical and protective properties.

The Effects of Wooden Furniture Color, Floor Material, and Age on Design Evaluation, Visual Attention, and Emotions in Office Environments

The selection of floors and furniture in offices can impact the interior environment and potentially influence employees’ emotions and health. This study aims to investigate the effects of floor material, furniture color, and age on design evaluation, fixation duration, and time to first fixation. Twenty-four younger adults (M = 21.9, SD = 1.75) and twenty-four older adults (M = 48.1, SD = 6.85) participated in the experiment, where they viewed four different designs: wood floor—brown furniture (WF-BF), wood floor—dark furniture (WF-DF), tile floor—brown furniture (TF-BF), and tile floor—dark furniture (TF-DF). Participants also evaluated the designs and their emotions. Results showed the main effects and interactions of floor material, furniture color, and age. WF-BF performed the best in design evaluation, fixation duration, and time to first fixation, and also scored highest in joy, admiration, fascination, and desire. Older adults favored the texture of wood, while younger adults showed better acceptance of TF-DF. This study provides insights for interior design in office environments.

Eggshells Utilisation in Polymer Composites

The outer covering of a hard shelled egg is known as eggshell. These are obtained from various sources like egg stations, chicken hatcheries industries and homes in different weights. It is a kind of waste which is considered not be used anywhere. It can produce hydroxyapatite which is considered most effective component of bone. This can have applications in medical supplements, bone graft substitute, floor tiles and in cements in order to improve strength but here discussion is limited to polymer composite. In composite fabrication egg shell waste is utilized, as it not only enhances the strength of composite but also provides us solution for the proper disposal waste egg shell. This review paper presents the brief insight of utilization of egg shell waste in polymer composite so as to improve its strength. From this review paper it may be concluded that research on tribological behavior of egg shell is less so it can be implemented in different sectors like metal matrix composite etc.

Safeguarding public facilities: a study on enhancing safety in mosque amenities through slip-resistance and surface innovations

PurposeThis study critically examines the safety aspects of ablution spaces in United Arab Emirates (UAE) mosques, emphasising the evaluation of smooth ceramic tile floorings prone to water accumulation. As an integral practice in Islamic worship, ablution spaces cater to a diverse demographic, making their safety a paramount concern. This study aims to meticulously assess slip-resistance properties and surface characteristics to provide practical recommendations for enhanced safety measures.Design/methodology/approachThe investigation involves in situ measurements of traction properties and an extensive analysis of surface features in thirty mosques across the UAE. This comprehensive approach allows for identifying the unique challenges posed by ceramic tile floorings in ablution spaces. The study uses a portable tribometer for dynamic friction coefficient measurements, ensuring accurate slip-resistance evaluations. Surface texture analysis uses a portable profilometer to quantify roughness parameters.FindingsThe study’s findings significantly advance the comprehension of safety considerations in ablution spaces. Through empirical evidence and evidence-based insights, the research identifies immediate safety concerns and provides practical recommendations to create secure and inclusive environments within mosques. The emphasis lies on safeguarding the well-being of worshippers and contributing to the broader goal of safety in religious spaces.Originality/valueThe original contribution of this study lies in its dual focus on immediate safety concerns and the deeper understanding of unique safety challenges within ablution spaces. By offering evidence-based insights and practical recommendations, the research strives to make meaningful contributions to creating secure and inclusive environments within mosques.

Piezoelectric Sensors Pressed by Human Footsteps for Energy Harvesting

Human footsteps are a sustainable energy source that is derived from kinetic energy. As a result, in this study, piezoelectric sensors placed beneath floor tiles were excited by human footsteps to provide practical electrical energy. A simple rectifying circuit with a filter was used to capture electrical power. The floor tile is 455 mm in length and 405 mm in width. Two light-emitted diodes were lit up as the actual load by utilising electrical energy obtained from the kinetic energy generated by human footsteps. The greatest attainable power that could be extracted from the suggested floor tile was 249.6 milliwatts, with an approximate cost of $10.2.