Flexible Working Patterns Research Articles

ESMO Resilience Task Force recommendations to manage psychosocial risks, optimise well-being, and reduce burnout in oncology

Burnout in health care professionals (HCPs) results from exposure to psychosocial risks at work. Left unaddressed, burnout can lead to chronic health problems, increased staff turnover, reduced work hours, absenteeism, and early retirement from clinical practice, thus impacting patient care. The European Society for Medical Oncology (ESMO) Resilience Task Force (RTF) was established in December 2019 to support the well-being of oncology HCPs globally. This ESMO RTF position paper aims to provide a set of recommendations to optimise well-being and mitigate burnout in oncology, and to help individuals and institutions maintain the delivery of optimal cancer care. Recommendations were developed by a diverse multinational panel of interprofessional experts based on the key findings from three previously reported ESMO RTF surveys. Several recurrent work-related psychosocial risks in oncology were identified; in particular, concerns about workload and professional development. The need for flexible work patterns, continued use of virtual resources, well-being resources, and targeted support for at-risk groups were highlighted as key considerations to safeguard HCPs' health and prevent burnout. In total, 11 recommendations relating to three priority themes were developed: (i) information and training; (ii) resources; (iii) activism and advocacy. Optimising the well-being of oncology HCPs is essential for the provision of high-quality, sustainable care for patients globally. The ESMO RTF will continue its mission and is rolling out several initiatives and activities to support the implementation of these recommendations.

Examination of the relationship between tasks in geriatric health service facilities and benefits of working for older assistant care workers

Objective In this study, we clarified the characteristics of tasks performed by older assistant care workers at geriatric health services facilities, by individual characteristics and work status. Additionally, we examined the relationship between the tasks and benefits of working for older assistant care workers.Methods A self-administered questionnaire survey was provided to 2,571 elderly care facilities employing assistant care workers aged ≥60. A total of 1,606 responses were obtained, and personal characteristics, working conditions, tasks, and benefits of working for older care assistants were surveyed. Thirteen work tasks were established and categorized into four broad categories; user transfer assistance, facility maintenance, meal-related assistance, and managing and talking to users. Seven benefits of working as care assistants were "contribution to society," "social connection," "purpose of life," "income," "learning from caregiving," "health maintenance and promotion," and "time utilization."Results Most of the respondents were women and relatively young workers. Among tasks, men, younger workers, and those working >5 days weekly represented a high proportion of those performing user transfer assistance tasks. Tasks on managing and talking to users were not correlated with sex, age, and number of days worked, but those with more flexible work patterns were more likely to be engaged in such tasks. Logistic regression analysis showed that user transfer assistance was correlated with benefits of working, such as "contribution to society," "social connection," and "learning from caregiving." Moreover, facility maintenance was associated with "income," "health maintenance and promotion," and "time utilization" and meal-related assistance was associated with "learning from caregiving." Managing and talking to users was associated with "contribution of society," "social connection," "purpose of life," and "learning from caregiving."Conclusion The tasks of the workers were associated with individual characteristics and work status. The perception of benefits between the working tasks that involved frequent contact with users and those that did not were considerably different.

Flexible work patterns and experiences of the work-family interface among Australian parents

Flexible work is often heralded as a key solution to the work–family ‘juggle’, yet evidence of its effectiveness is mixed, and few studies consider how parents combine flexible work options to balance work and care. This study aimed to examine the interplay between formal (employer-provided) and informal (self-directed) flexible work arrangements and identify usage patterns that support parents’ management of the work–family interface. We examined data from 3669 coupled Australian parents collected in 2016–2017. Using latent class analysis, we identified three distinct patterns of total flexibility use (low, moderate and high). Parents who were low users had the poorest work–family experiences, reporting higher work-to-family conflict, lower work–family enrichment and less balance than moderate or high users. However, high users experienced higher family-to-work conflict, and greater flexibility uptake did not ease perceptions of time pressure. Overall, findings demonstrate that formal and informal flexibility is a beneficial resource for mothers and fathers.

Gender-Based Motivational Factors For Choosing Dentistry As A Career By First Year Dental Students Of College Of Pakistan

Objective: Dentistry, also known as “Dental Medicine” is opted for various reasons like prestige, socioeconomic status or personal desire. However, some join dentistry just to fulfil the wishes of their parents. Students who choose dentistry by their own choice excel better in this field. Another general impression is that mostly female students prefer it. To have a true picture of these impressions in our society, we planned this study to identify the reasons and motives of undergraduate dental surgeons for joining dentistry. Methods: A cross-sectional study, was conducted on 278 students at Margalla College of Dentistry, from December 2020 to April 2021 after the approval of the Ethical review committee of the institute. - The probability judgmental sampling technique was used. Students who consented were included in the study. A self-administered questionnaire was used to collect data which was analyzed using SPSS 21. Results: In this study, about 48.4% of students selected dentistry as their first choice but out of these only 48.9% did prior career planning. Female students 76 (49.6%) opted for dentistry as compared to male students 12 (30.7%). However, there was an insignificant difference regarding career choice between both genders (p=0.591). Prominent motivating factors were flexible work patterns (63.5%), self-employment (63%), financial security (44.8%) and parents wish (25%). Conclusion: Students chose Dentistry not only due to their interests but also because of flexible work patterns, financial security and self-employment. Both genders have more or less the same inclination towards dentistry. Keywords: Career; Dental students; Factors; Pakistan; Undergraduate.

Flexible Working Arrangements and Human Capital Development in Organizations: Key Issues

Employees involved in the production of both goods and services are notably any organization’s most valuable assets. Organizations are continually striving to develop their employees’ human capital. Human capital development involves those activities focused on advancing the most par excellent workforce, to ensure that the organization and individual employees achieve their work goals and is concerned with activities related to the experience, skills, training, knowledge, education, competences and technical know-how contributed by humans to an organization. Hence, human capital development could be in the form of general training which enables acquisition of general or specific knowledge, competencies and skills for the improvement of a particular job, improving the health conditions of employees, or improving working conditions by using more efficient and innovative working arrangements. Flexible working arrangements (FWAs) are atypical work patterns which take into account the demands of employees, particularly in terms of balancing work and personal life and allowing an employee to choose when and where to work normally outside the traditional typical pattern of arriving at the workplace by 8am and leaving at 4pm daily. It includes the following: flexible working hours, flexi-time, part -time work, overtime, job sharing, teleworking etc. This paper looks at key issues that arise from embracing flexible working patterns as forms of improving work condition for human capital development. The ecological systems theory with its two guiding propositions which state that individuals develop through prolonged interaction with others and that immediate and distant environments influence this development is applied as the theoretical framework. Library research involving analytical discussion of secondary data is adopted as the methodology. It is recommended the issues encountered from imbibing flexible working arrangements in organizations should be considered and tackled to ensure that the benefits of Flexible work arrangements (FWAs) for human capital development are properly harnessed.

"Is this a new dawn for accessibility?" A qualitative interview study assessing teleworking experiences in adults with physical disabilities post COVID-19.

While employers plan how to restructure working practices after the initial response to the COVID-19 pandemic, it is essential that the disability community are represented in research addressing telework; their expertise is invaluable for ensuring equity from the outset. The current study qualitatively investigated how people with physical disabilities negotiate telework in a post-COVID era. Ten participants with a range of physical disabilities were recruited and interviewed. Themes were generated from the data utilising an established method of reflexive inductive thematic analysis. Increased flexibility as well as control over work schedules and the environment facilitated by teleworking, improved participants' disability management, health, work performance, and personal opportunities. However, the importance of choice to work in-office, of implementing additional physical and virtual work adjustments, and of flexible work patterns to remove barriers to accessibility when homeworking was emphasised. Active efforts by employers to create an inclusive and flexible work culture were identified as crucial to ensure that integration and professional development of employees with disabilities, understanding of disability experience, and normalisation of accessibility needs are not diminished by the decreased visibility incurred by teleworking. Teleworking is not a panacea for resolving the disability employment disadvantage. Rather, teleworking could be a springboard upon which further flexibility and choice can be built to shift organisational practices to better accommodate individual employees, with and without disabilities, post-COVID. It is imperative to act on such insights to create accessible workplaces to facilitate more inclusive workforces.

“Make it the done thing”: an exploration of attitudes towards rest breaks, productivity and wellbeing while working from home

ObjectiveTaking regular rest breaks while working positively impacts productivity and wellbeing. While home and hybrid working styles have become a popular choice for employees, the impact of, and perceptions towards, taking breaks while working at home is poorly understood. The current research aimed to explore attitudes towards taking rest breaks while working from home and capture levels of breaks taken, wellbeing and productivity in a sample of UK white-collar workers.MethodsA mixed method approach was applied where self-report data from an online survey were gathered from individuals (N = 140) from one organisation. Open-ended questions regarding attitudes and perceptions towards rest break behaviours were obtained. Further quantitative measures included the number of breaks taken while working from home, levels of productivity (measured by the Health and performance Presenteeism subscale) and mental wellbeing (measured by the Short Warwick-Edinburgh Mental wellbeing scale). Both quantitative and qualitative analysis approaches were applied.ResultsQualitative responses indicated two overarching themes (1) Personal and (2) Organisational sat above four further themes including Movement outside, Structure of home working, Home environment and Digital presence. Additionally, quantitative findings indicated that the number of breaks taken outside was associated with positive changes in wellbeing.ConclusionEmployers could aim to support employees working from home in taking outside breaks through flexible working patterns, authentic leadership, and a change in company social norms around break behaviours. Such organisational changes could help to improve workforce productivity and wellbeing.

Reflective, pragmatic, and reactive decision-making by maternity service providers during the SARS-CoV-2 pandemic health system shock: a qualitative, grounded theory analysis

BackgroundPregnant and postpartum women were identified as having particular vulnerability to severe symptomatology of SARS-CoV-2 infection, so maternity services significantly reconfigured their care provision. We examined the experiences and perceptions of maternity care staff who provided care during the pandemic in South London, United Kingdom – a region of high ethnic diversity with varied levels of social complexity.MethodsWe conducted a qualitative interview study, as part of a service evaluation between August and November 2020, using in-depth, semi-structured interviews with a range of staff (N = 29) working in maternity services. Data were analysed using Grounded Theory analysis appropriate to cross-disciplinary health research.Analysis & findingsMaternity healthcare professionals provided their views, experiences, and perceptions of delivering care during the pandemic. Analysis rendered three emergent themes regarding decision-making during reconfigured maternity service provision, organised into pathways: 1) ‘Reflective decision-making’; 2) ‘Pragmatic decision-making’; and 3) ‘Reactive decision-making’. Whilst pragmatic decision-making was found to disrupt care, reactive-decision-making was perceived to devalue the care offered and provided. Alternatively, reflective decision-making, despite the difficult working conditions of the pandemic, was seen to benefit services, with regards to care of high-quality, sustainability of staff, and innovation within the service.ConclusionsDecision-making within maternity care was found to take three forms – where at best changes to services could be innovative, at worst they could cause devaluation in care being delivered, and more often than not, these changes were disruptive. With regard to positive changes, healthcare providers identified staff empowerment, flexible working patterns (both for themselves and collectively as teams), personalised care delivery, and change-making in general, as key areas to capitalise on current and ongoing innovations borne out of the pandemic. Key learnings included a focus on care-related, meaningful listening and engagement of staff at all levels, in order to drive forward high-quality care and avoid care disruption and devaluation.

Back to the future: post-pandemic work and management

PurposeAs the world emerges from the COVID-19 global pandemic and medical emergency, the author looks at the impacts on the world of work and its management and also tries to set them in some context. This study aims to discuss the aforementioned idea.Design/methodology/approachThe author uses some of the latest global and comparative media and survey research as well as some theories to explore the topic of post-pandemic work and management.FindingsWork – and its management – is impacted on by crisis, such as the pandemic, for twin inter-locking reasons. First, it engenders uncertainty, which comes in different degrees and levels and variability in people's comfortableness with it. Second, the commensurate jolt of a crisis can block existing models and force common experimentation, even in areas previously resisted, such as more flexible working patterns. There are a variety of short and longer term reasons for both changes to work and management and also responses and commitment to them by management and organisations.Originality/valueThe author details the impact of both the COVID-19 pandemic and wider contextual changes on the world of work. The author notes a set of reasons, both practical and theoretical, as to why flexible or hybrid working, while sometimes seen as a problem, can work. The author shows that rather than a simple “either-or” dichotomy in choice and support for post-pandemic work arrangements, there is a range of options.

Factors contributing to nurse resignation during COVID-19: A qualitative descriptive study.

To explore and describe registered nurses' perceptions and experiences of work well-being extending from what inspired them to join the healthcare organization, what created a great day at work for them, through to what may have supported them to stay. Qualitative descriptive study. Thirty-nine Australian nurses who resigned in 2021 from two metropolitan healthcare organizations in Victoria were interviewed in 2022, each for 30-60min. The semi-structured interview transcripts were transcribed verbatim and analysed inductively and thematically. Four themes were constructed for each of the key research questions. Inspiration to join the organizations transpired through organizational reputation, recruitment experiences, right position and right time, fit and feel. A great day at work was created through relationships with colleagues, experiences with managers, adequate resourcing and delivering quality care. Factors contributing to nurses resigning included COVID-19, uncertainty of role, workload and rostering, and finally, not feeling supported, respected and valued. Factors that may have supported the nurses to stay included flexible work patterns and opportunities, improved workplace relationships, workload management and support, and supportive systems and environments. Cutting across these themes were five threads: (1) relationships, (2) communication, (3) a desire to learn and develop, (4) work-life balance and (5) providing quality patient care. Novel ways of working and supporting individuals, teams and organizations are needed to maintain and sustain nurses. The nurses' inspiration, what created a great day at work, and support needed to stay highlighted the importance of workplace initiatives to build nursing career pathways, provide equitable opportunities for professional development, workload and roster flexibility and implement professional relationship-enhancing actions to foster authentic civility. This study contributes an in-depth exploration of the perceptions and experiences of nurses who resigned from two healthcare organizations and provides a description of (1) what inspired these nurses to initially join the organization, (2) what they perceived created a great day at work for them, (3) the factors contributing to their resignation and (4) what may have supported them to stay. The reasons nurses resign from an organization were identified as complex and multi-factorial, with opportunities for promoting nursing career pathways, addressing equity in opportunities and implementing professional relationship-enhancing actions. These contributions add both context and opportunity to strengthen organizational initiatives to attract, sustain and retain nurses.

How industry can unlock potential of a four-day-week

The COVID-19 pandemic has spurred a massive transformation in our approach to work, with terms such as `flexible working' and `work-life balance' rising to prominence in our general lexicon. The industry is facing skills and labour gaps, all while trying to improve productivity and redress supply-chain issues, meaning a reduction in working hours may currently seem impossible. In fact, by embracing automation, manufacturers may well find more solutions to their problems than expected, while supporting their employees along the way and even unlocking the possibility of the four-day week. Automating menial factory tasks will let employees dedicate their time to more stimulating and fulfilling roles. In theory, this would reduce time spent at work and even get rid of the night shift, which is known to have adverse effects on employees' health. In turn, this could allow for more flexible work patterns and even the possibility of a four-day week, with productivity shortfalls offset by automation.

Overcoming barriers for women entering the urology workforce in the United Kingdom

Background: Urology has considerable gender disparity with just 10.3% of UK consultant posts held by women and lower than the 13.2% average across all surgical specialties. Medicine is no longer a male-dominated vocation, with women making up the majority of medical graduates for almost 30 years. To recruit the highest calibre doctors, urology needs to appeal and be accessible to all talented individuals. Objective: In this paper we explore barriers to workforce diversity and propose solutions to the current problems. Methods: A literature review was conducted and authors’ opinions explored. Results: Reasons for women avoiding a career in urology include perceptions of urology as a ‘male’ specialty, lack of female role models, less mentoring and sponsorship of female medical students and trainees, and the use of derogatory and devaluing language. We suggest solutions to overcome these barriers for the benefit of profession. Conclusions: While there is a way to go to reach gender parity, there are reasons to be optimistic. We propose to see more women supported through mentoring programmes, more female representation on panels and in leadership positions to raise the profile of women in urology. We need to create a workplace culture and flexible working patterns that encourages all genders to excel.

Lost employment potential and supporting people with Parkinson’s to stay in work: insights from a Pan European cross-sectional survey

Purpose To explore, in a European cohort of people living with Parkinson’s (PD), issues affecting employment and economic consequences, considering age at diagnosis. Materials and methods A cross-sectional survey (European convenience sample). Inclusion criteria were ≥18 years, a PD diagnosis and in work when diagnosed. Data were collected online on demographics, employment status, occupation, and perceived health. For those no longer in paid work, time from diagnosis until loss of employment, reasons for leaving and enablers to stay in work were ascertained. Results Between April and November 2019, n = 692 enrolled and n = 560 were eligible. Those who had lost paid work (n = 190, 34%) reported worse fatigue, sleep, and general health than those still in work (p < 0.05). Average annual income reduced from €26973.48 ± 12013.22 (year-1) to €14843.85 ± 16969.84 (year-10). Post-diagnosis lost employment potential was 20.1 (95% confidence interval (CI): 16.6–23.6) years at career establishment, 9.8 (95%CI: 8.9–10.7) years at mid working and 1.2 (95%CI: 0.6–1.6) years for those nearing retirement age. A greater proportion of individuals at career establishment age reported dexterity, eating, sleep, fatigue, and anxiety as factors for leaving work (p < 0.05). Conclusions This study confirms lost productivity after a PD diagnosis, especially in those with many years of potential employment ahead. The study also identified potential targets for interventions. Clinical trial registration: Clincaltrials.gov (NCT03905954). Implications for rehabilitation People with Parkinson’s diagnosed at career establishment or at mid working age risk losing many years of potential employment. Most people with Parkinson’s do not receive early intervention to support self-management of problems identified with leaving work early, such as fatigue. Adaptations to the work environment and more flexible working patterns were identified factors that may help people remain in work.

Factors influencing older nurses' decision making around the timing of retirement: An explorative mixed-method study.

This study aimed to understand factors influencing decision making of older nurses around timing of retirement. Global nursing shortages require flexible nurse retention strategies. An explanatory sequential mixed-method approach: nurses across seven health care organisations within one integrated care system responded to an online survey (n = 524). Semistructured interviews and a focus group were conducted (n = 19). Survey data confirmed age as a key factor influencing nurses' decision making. Factors associated with retention were flexible working conditions, financial considerations and feeling valued. Factors associated with attrition were poor or deteriorating health, stress and wish for more time with family and friends. Logit regression confirmed that flexible work patterns are the strongest predictors for working beyond retirement. Qualitative data revealed that retirement plans are accompanied by personal milestones; the work environment heavily influences these plans. Reasons for retirement are multifaceted, but many factors are within the control of employers. Organisational policies, practices and workplace culture have a bearing on decisions surrounding the timing of retirement. Retention strategies that allow older nurses to work part-time are key, and nurse managers need to proactively engage with older nurses to discuss their retirement plans.

Impact of COVID-19 on the practice of breast pathologists: a survey of breast pathologists in the UK and Ireland

AimsThere is little information on the impact of COVID-19 on breast pathologists. This survey assessed the effect of the COVID-19 pandemic on UK and Ireland-based breast pathologists to optimise working...

Implementation of a ward staff self-rostering system: improving morale and retention.

Staff morale is an important factor in maintaining and improving nurse recruitment and retention. Evidence suggests more flexible working patterns can improve nurses' work-life balance and subsequently their workplace satisfaction. This article describes a ward-based quality improvement project that introduced a self-rostering system that enabled nurses to select their own shifts for a given four-week roster period. The aim was to increase staff satisfaction and subsequently improve retention and recruitment. The article describes the project and discusses the positive outcomes.

The key components of a successful model of midwifery-led continuity of carer, without continuity at birth: findings from a qualitative implementation evaluation

BackgroundRecent UK maternity policy changes recommend that a named midwife supports women throughout their pregnancy, birth and postnatal care. Whilst many studies report high levels of satisfaction amongst women receiving, and midwives providing, this level of continuity of carer, there are concerns some midwives may experience burnout and stress. In this study, we present a qualitative evaluation of the implementation of a midwife-led continuity of carer model that excluded continuity of carer at the birth.MethodsUnderpinned by the Conceptual Model for Implementation Fidelity, our evaluation explored the implementation, fidelity, reach and satisfaction of the continuity of carer model. Semi-structured interviews were undertaken with midwives (n = 7) and women (n = 15) from continuity of carer team. To enable comparisons between care approaches, midwives (n = 7) and women (n = 10) from standard approach teams were also interviewed. Interviews were recorded, transcribed and analysed using thematic analysis.ResultsFor continuity of carer team midwives, manageable caseloads, extended appointment times, increased team stability, and flexible working patterns facilitated both care provided and midwives’ job satisfaction. Both continuity of carer and standard approach midwives reported challenges in providing postnatal continuity given the unpredictable timing of labour and birth. Time constraints, inadequate staffing and lack of administrative support were reported as additional barriers to implementing continuity of carer within standard approach teams. Women reported continuity was integral to building trust with midwives, encouraged them to disclose mental health issues and increased their confidence in making birth choices.ConclusionsOur evaluation highlighted the successful implementation of a continuity of carer model for ante and postnatal care. Despite exclusion of the birth element in the model, both women and midwives expressed high levels of satisfaction in comparison to women and midwives within the standard approach. Implementation successes were largely due to structural and resource factors, particularly the combination of additional time and smaller caseloads of women. However, these resources are not widely available within the resources of maternity unit budgets. Future research should further explore whether a continuity of carer model focusing on antenatal and postnatal care delivery is a feasible and sustainable model of care for all women.

The ethnicised hustle: Narratives of enterprise and postfeminism among young migrant women

Discourses of hustling are ever-present in a global, capitalist society in which, among other reforms, notions of time are compressed and intensified and neoliberalism is operationalised as a form of affective self-governance. Global brand campaigns like Nike’s ‘Rise and Grind’ want consumers to believe that hard work and persistence produces individual exceptionalism. Young people working in technology, cultural and creative industries in urban cities ‘never stop hustling – one never exits a kind of work rapture, in which the chief purpose of exercising or attending a concert is to get inspiration that leads back to the desk’ . This is the latest iteration of a corporatised vision of the hustle that seeks to glamourise exploitative working conditions, creating a culture where overwork and an obsession with being productive is the norm. This article considers how these discourses come into contact with localised migrant understandings of ‘the hustle’: an orientation to work rooted in the legacy of ethnic entrepreneurship. Drawing on a qualitative study with creative and cultural workers of ethnic minority backgrounds in Australia, the article explores their motivations to pursue creative vocational pathways in spite of structural challenges. While creative and cultural workers are heralded as model entrepreneurial subjects for their highly autonomous and flexible work patterns, here I draw on narratives about work and creative expression to suggest that the experiences of racialised young women lead to new possibilities for a race critical analysis of postfeminist, neoliberal discourses of entrepreneurship. By exploring how precarity and work insecurity is negotiated in the context of racialised young women’s lives, I ask what the implications are for minority young women who buy into the neoliberal values of individual exceptionalism and the myths of meritocracy while remaining embedded in their local communities.

Improvement of Workplace Environment That Affects Motivation of Japanese Dental Hygienists.

Dental hygienists are in high demand due to insufficient workforce and a lack of an effective reinstatement support system. We investigated the reasons for willingness to work by analyzing the survey results of the employment status of Japanese dental hygienists conducted by Japan Dental Hygienists’ Association. In total, we mailed 16,113 questionnaires to all members of the association (response rate 53.4%). We carried out statistical analysis to determine the specific items to improve the hygienists’ working environment. Fourteen factors of working conditions that they wish to improve were determined. Structural equation modeling showed that a path, “Reduction of work volume”, “Reduction of working hours” and “Increased number of holidays” were higher than other items. A decision analysis demonstrated that most of the respondents answered “Yes” to “Improvement in working conditions including higher salary” out of those who answered, “Strongly disagree” for “Do you feel that dental hygienist work is rewarding?”. Improving workplace environment is integral to keeping high levels of work motivation and a low turnover rate. Most of the hygienists wish for a salary raise among all the conditions. The transition from conventional work styles to non-conventional flexible working patterns is needed.

Work histories of older adults in China: Social heterogeneity and the pace of de-standardisation.

Inequalities in the labour market are recognised as presenting a major impediment to extending the working lives of older adults in China as part of any proposed reforms of the public pension system against the background of population ageing. While a growing body of literature has paid attention to understanding this issue within the wider international context, there remains a dearth of research on work histories in China. This research which is crucial for the understanding of inequalities in later life. This paper provides a unique evidence on the work experiences over the life course of 7281 Chinese individuals aged 60 and over (born between 1930-1954), using retrospective life history data from the China Health and Retirement Longitudinal Study. With the application of sequence analysis and cluster analysis, results reveal a picture of significant social heterogeneity within work trajectories between urban and rural areas and between men and women. Such differences are largely shaped by the wider economic and institutional context, as well as by key personal characteristics such as educational attainment. More importantly, cohort comparisons highlight how different groups of current Chinese older alduts have been affected by changes in the labour market and the public pension system over the past sixty years. Whilst it is to be expected that younger cohorts amongst today's older population will have experienced some de-standardisation of work trajectories following the opening up of the economy since the 1980s, the heterogeneity in work trajectories across different social groups within and between cohorts is notable. These findings emphasise the importance of ensuring policy design that delivers equitable pension entitlements and supports flexible working patterns in order to reduce inequalities in the labour market between rural and urban residents and between men and women.