Fleece Colour Research Articles

Genetic evolution of the alpaca in the southern Peruvian Andes

The aim of this study was to show the progress of the genetic improvement of the alpaca that inhabits the southern part of Peru, especially in the production of fibre, considering the negative statements. The written literature developed during the last century was reviewed and analysed. First, the variations in alpaca breeding techniques in the periods of the Inca, Viceroyalty and Republican times were reviewed. Then the concepts and criteria of breeding and selection practiced in southern Peru on alpacas were reviewed (first in the communities, then the farms, cooperatives, medium-sized farms and public and private institutions for the production of fibre with the influence of the textile market international). In the third part, the population changes of the Suri and Huacaya breeds and the change in fibre fineness and fleece colour preference were analysed. Likewise, the fineness data of alpaca fibre analysed in the 70s is contrasted with recent work in national fibre laboratories. Finally, the genetic gain in fibre fineness by breeds and generations was determined. It is concluded that there were no changes in the breed populations, but there have been strong changes in the colour of the alpaca fleece towards white and in fineness, whose estimated genetic gain is considerable in favour of the fine fibre, more in Huacaya than in the Suri breed on alpacas of southern Peru.

Identification of polymorphisms in TYRP1, DCT and RAB38 genes and their association with coat color in alpacas

ObjectiveThe goal of this study was to characterize and investigate the effect of single nucleotide polymorphisms (SNPs) or InDels in tyrosinase related protein 1 (TYRP1), dopachrome tautomerase (DCT), and Ras-related protein 38 (RAB38) genes on coat color in South American camelids. TYRP1 is among one of the major regulators of pigmentation in mammals. DCT is a pigment cell-specific gene that plays an important role in the melanin synthesis pathway and the expression of skin color. RAB38 is involved in the transport of tyrosinase (TYR) and TYRP1, which are key enzymes in melanin production.MethodsFive fleece color tones from 327 alpacas (white, black, brown, gray and light fawn) were investigated to characterize and identify polymorphisms that play a role in coat color. Among the SNPs and Indels identified in the coding region, statistical analysis was performed to determine the association between the polymorphisms and fleece color in camelids, as well as the determination of allelic frequencies.ResultsTwenty two polymorphisms in the coding region, seven of them were nonsynonymous, eleven were synonymous, three located in the 5’UTR region and one deletion in the 3’UTR region were identified in the TYRP1 gene; in the DCT gene were identified twenty two polymorphisms, where five of them were non-synonymous, twelve were synonymous, one polymorphism in the 5’UTR region and four in the 3’UTR region; in adition, in the RAB38 gene six polymorphisms were identified, one was nonsynonymous, two were synonymous, in addition to three polymorphisms in the 3’UTR region were found in the RAB38 gene. There were low to moderate polymorphisms in the populations. Significant differences (P<0.001) were found with color fiber in the alpaca populations studied for TYRP1 and DCT genes.

MC1R Gene Variants and Their Relationship with Coat Color in South American Camelids.

In domestic camelids, fleece color is an essential characteristic because it defines the direction of production. Variants were determined in the MC1R gene that showed a relationship with coat color in alpacas and llamas at the level of the coding region. This report sequenced the MC1R gene from 290 alpacas (142 white, 84 black, 50 brown, and 14 light fawn), five brown llamas, nine vicuñas, and three guanacos to analyze the association between coat color and the MC1R gene among South American camelids. A total of nineteen polymorphisms were identified. Seven polymorphisms were significant; three of them were of nonsynonymous type (c.82A > G, c.376G > A, and c.901C > T), two were of synonymous type (c.126 T > C and c.933G > A), one was in the promoter region (-42C > G), and one was in the 3' UTR (+5T > C). More polymorphisms were found in domestic camelids than in wild camelids. Besides polymorphism, the association of polymorphisms might cause white and dark pigmentation in the fleece of South American camelids. In addition, the MC1R protein would answer the pigmentation in alpacas.

Sheep genetic resources in Bulgaria with focus on breeds with coloured wool

This review describes sheep genetic resources in Bulgaria with coloured wool and evaluates the country’s potential for coloured wool production. In 2018, Bulgaria counted 125,422 animals belonging to 18 native sheep breeds, six of which are in danger of extinction. Native sheep breeds in Bulgaria can be divided into three groups depending on the fleece colour of the animals: i) sheep breeds with fully pigmented fleece in all animals; ii) sheep breeds with animals with fully pigmented fleece or fully white fleece; iii) sheep breeds with spotted coloured fleece. Colouration in populations of the native Bulgarian sheep breeds can be explained by the phenotypic expression of several alleles of coat colour genes: ExtensionD, Agoutia and Pigmented headT , while white colour is due to the presence of the dominant Agoutiwt allele.Based on the relative share of the animals with coloured wool, the country’s potential for annual coloured wool production from native breeds was estimated at a minimum of 133,791 kg of unwashed wool. Recent tendencies in lifestyle changes of the Bulgarian people are gradually leading to increased interest in naturally coloured wool products, which may benefit the conservation of endangered native breeds by promoting relevant breeding programmes.

Modificación Diluída de Colores en Ovinos Shetland y Ouessant

Ovinos de la raza Shetland mostraban vellones de varios colores, los cuales variaban de oscuro a claro en un grupo basado en el negro (negro, negro cálido, café oscuro, y estaño) y otro basado en café (café, café claro, miel). Los ovinos produjeron 257 crias. Entre los colores mas diluidos, apareamientos de miel con miel solamente produjeron crias de color miel. Parejas estaño por estaño solamente produjeron crias de miel o estaño. Estos dos colores diluidos apereados con colores más oscuros, produjeron varios colores que concuerdan con un sistema de dos loci. En el cual el negro es dominante sobre el café en un locus (B), y los colores diluidos fueron recesivos respectos a los colores completamente intensos en un segundo locus (Mod que significa Modificado). Ambos loci tienen algún grado de dominancia incompleta, que representa la gama completa de colores de vellóon. Los resultados de la raza Ouessant incluyeron 41 crías, todos de colores del grupo basado en el negro. Los resultados de Ouessant son similares a ellos de Shetland, e indican que el mecanismo para la dilución del color de los vellones ocurre en varias razas.

Correlation between mean fibre diameter and total follicle density in alpacas of differing age and colour in the Parinacota province of the Chilean high plain

This investigation aimed to determine and correlate mean fibre diameter (MFD) and total follicle density (TFD) in juvenile (1–2 years) and adult (3–6 years) white and brown alpacas in the Parinacota Region of northern Chile. Fibre samples and skin biopsies were taken from the mid-side regions of 77 individuals. The observed MFD for all individuals (22.6±3.76 µm) was lower than that obtained by previous research in the same geographic region. There was no demonstrated statistical difference between MFD and TFD based on fleece colour (p>0.05). Demonstrated MFD in white alpacas was 22.57±3.92 µm with a TFD of 21.97±6.37 foll/mm2; in brown alpacas MFD was 22.63±3.66 µm and TFD 21.56±7.25 foll/mm2. MFD in juvenile alpacas was 21.61±2.78 µm with a TFD of 24.2±7.49 foll/mm2 and in adults MFD was 23.47±4.3 µm with a TFD of 19.62±5.34 foll/mm2, demonstrating a statistically significant difference between age groups of lower MFD but higher TFD in juvenile individuals (p<0.05). A correlation (−0.42, p<0.05) between lower mean fiber diameter and higher TFD was observed for all individuals. These results contribute to regional efforts to advance genetic selection based on TFD and improve fleece productivity and economic viability of the local industry.

The Genetic Inheritance of the Blue-eyed White Phenotype in Alpacas (Vicugna pacos)

White-spotting patterns in mammals can be caused by mutations in the gene KIT, whose protein is necessary for the normal migration and survival of melanocytes from the neural crest. The alpaca (Vicugna pacos) blue-eyed white (BEW) phenotype is characterized by 2 blue eyes and a solid white coat over the whole body. Breeders hypothesize that the BEW phenotype in alpacas is caused by the combination of the gene causing gray fleece and a white-spotting gene. We performed an association study using KIT flanking and intragenic markers with 40 unrelated alpacas, of which 17 were BEW. Two microsatellite alleles at KIT-related markers were significantly associated (P < 0.0001) with the BEW phenotype (bew1 and bew2). In a larger cohort of 171 related individuals, we identify an abundance of an allele (bew1) in gray animals and the occurrence of bew2 homozygotes that are solid white with pigmented eyes. Association tests accounting for population structure and familial relatedness are consistent with a proposed model where these alleles are in linkage disequilibrium with a mutation or mutations that contribute to the BEW phenotype and to individual differences in fleece color.

Phenotypic characterization of the population of creole wool ewes in the highlands of Puebla State, Mexico

This study characterized the population of wool ewes in the highlands of the State of Puebla, Mexico, considering traits such as fleece color, weight, and body measurements. In this region, dominated by a temperate climate, sheep are a traditional animal species for farming systems. To carry out the work, 2,082 ewes were randomly selected from 14 communities and 124 flocks belonging to the six municipalities that have the largest inventory of sheep in the state. For each ewe, live weight, breed, fleece color pattern, and 18 other body measurements were recorded. Descriptive statistics were estimated for weight and body traits and the morphotype was classified by multivariate analysis. Factor analysis identified the bulk, size, and breed standard as the attributes that best describe the population of ewes. These elements varied in importance among the groups (p < 0.05). Cluster analysis helped to classify the population into small black-faced ewes (28.5 %), small white ewes (11.9 %), black-faced medium-sized ewes (24.1 %), large ewes (12.3 %), and white medium-sized ewes (23.2 %). The groups identified were similar to creole sheep present in rural communities in other environments, but have lower morphostructural values than specialized breeds.

Caracterisation Phenotypique de la Population Ovine du Sud Ouest de la Tunisie

The objective of this study was the morphological characterization of the sheep population in the southwest of Tunisia. A joint analysis of quantitative and qualitative characters was carried out on 987 animals of three breeds: two local breeds (Barbarine (BAR) and Queue Fine de l'Ouest (QFG and QFT)) and an exotic breed introduced from Morocco, the D'man (DMN) breed.Results on quantitative characters (height at withers (HG), body length (LC), thorax perimeter (PT), body weight of males (P♂) and body weight of females (P♀)) showed a significant superiority of the Queue Fine de l'Ouest breed compared to the other two breeds. On the other hand, results on qualitative characters (fleece color, horn and wattles) showed white to be the dominant color of the fleece in the Barbarine and Queue Fine breeds, while for the D'man breed there were various colors. Generally, females of the three breeds were polled while males were horned for the Queue Fine and polled for the Barbarine and D'man breeds. The Barbarine distinguishes itself from the other breeds by the total absence of wattles which are predominantly missing in the other two breeds.Genetic distances estimated on the basis of quantitative characters showed that distances found between the Barbarine-D'man and Fine Tail of Ouest-D'man breeds were higher than those found between the Barbarine-Queue Fine breeds.

Traditional llama husbandry and breeding management in the Ayopaya region, Bolivia

The llama claims the largest population of the domestic South American camelids, most of which are raised in Bolivia. More than 53,000 rural families are dedicated to llama husbandry as part of their livelihood strategy. Contemporary Andean societies deliberately select animals for specific traits and employ substantial livestock management to secure subsistence. This study presents traditional llama husbandry and breeding management activities in the Ayopaya region, Bolivia. Traditional selection traits for male and female llamas are documented and assessed by a ranking and a ratio-scaled evaluation. Husbandry and management parameters are in concordance with other studies conducted in the region, but show a high variation. Average llama herd sizes are rather small (mu = 45.6). In some herds, breeding males are utilized for a long time and mix with other herds, causing concerns about inbreeding. Preferred trait groups for llama males according to farmers' responses were body conformation, fibre, testicle conformation, fleece colour and height at withers. Traditional selection criteria generally relate to the phenotype, but also include the commercially interesting fibre trait. The presented results should be considered in breeding and management programmes for the respective llama population to ensure sustainable use of this genetically and culturally valuable resource.

Factors associated with low vitamin D status of Australian alpacas

To investigate factors associated with low vitamin D status of alpacas at pasture in southern Australia. A 2-year survey of alpacas from two farms in South Australia and three in Victoria. Blood samples were collected from 20 to 30 alpacas on each farm on five occasions each year. Breed, gender, age and fleece colour of animals were recorded. Blood samples were assayed for plasma 2.5-hydroxycholecalciferol (25-OH D(3)) and plasma inorganic phosphorus (Pi). Data sets from 802 animal samples were analysed by multiple regression to determine variables associated with low vitamin D status of alpacas. The relationship between plasma 25-OH D(3) and plasma Pi was also investigated. Vitamin D status was significantly affected by month of sampling, with low values in late winter and high values in summer. Plasma vitamin D concentrations increased with age, were higher in alpacas with light fleeces than in those with dark fleeces and were also higher in the Suri than in the Huacaya breed. Plasma Pi concentrations were generally lower in alpacas with plasma 25-OH D(3) values < 25 nmol/L. Young alpacas with dark fleeces are most at risk from vitamin D insufficiency in late winter in southern Australia. The present study indicates that plasma Pi values are not a reliable indicator of vitamin D status of alpacas as assessed by plasma 25-OH D(3) concentrations.

Development and characterization of lambs’ coats of East Prussian Skudden and Rough-coated Pomeranian Landrace sheep

Abstract. East-Prussian Skudden (Skudden) and Rough-coated Pomeranian Landrace (RPL) sheep are old endangered mixed-wool breeds. The fleece structure is unique for each breed compared with other characteristics in related breeds. Therefore, an essential factor in breed conservation is preservation of the typical fleece. As some RPL sheep show a tendency towards uniform fleeces, emphasis is placed on fleece evaluation in selection of flockbook ewes and especially in licensing rams. Currently, rams can only be presented at a minimum age of 1 ½ years when regrowth has sufficiently taken place. As these rare breeds are primarily kept in small flocks and not by shepherds, an earlier, preliminary selection for typical fleeces would aid in flock management. Fleece samples were taken from five body regions at intervals of 30–35 days beginning at an age of one month to 8 months, prior to shearing and after regrowth. Adult samples were graded and those of RPL evaluated for type and colour. Fibre types were sorted and counted according to presumed adult type as well as lamb fibre type. An attempt was made to find a point in development suitable for concluding the final fibre type composition, taking into account the final grade, type and fleece colour. In Skudden a preliminary selection is preferable at an age of 10–12 months. As RPL showed considerable changes in all fleece parameters between shearing and the adult sample, preliminary selection is not advisable.

Characterization of the effect of Melanocortin 1 Receptor, a member of the hair color genetic locus, in alpaca ( Lama pacos) fleece color differentiation

Little is known about the inheritance and influence of the fleece color gene Melanocortin 1 Receptor (MC1R). Melanocortin 1 Receptor (MC1R) is a well-known gene responsible for red versus black fleece pigmentation and is hypothesized to be a candidate gene for variation in alpaca coloration patterns. Inheritance of red versus black pigmentation in the context of genetic mutation is well understood in many domesticated mammals. We characterized the MC1R gene in a population of multi-colored alpacas in order to better understand its effect on coat color in the alpaca. Our characterization of the alpaca MC1R gene revealed 11 mutations. Of these one is a 4 bp deletion, four are silent mutations and six are single nucleotide polymorphisms (SNPs) that alter the amino acid sequence (T28V, M87V, S126G, T128I, S196F, R301C). No mutation correlated completely with fleece color in alpacas at the MC1R locus. This may be due to the epistatic relationship of MC1R with other coat color genes especially agouti signaling protein (ASIP).

Genetic relationships between pelt quality, maternal ability, and lamb production in the Gotland sheep breed

The aim of the present investigation was to study the genetic relationships between pelt quality traits (shade of fleece, size of curl, score for fleece colour, score for curl, score for quality of hair, score for thickness of fleece, sum of pelt scores, and overall score) on one hand and maternal ability, live weight, and carcass traits on the other hand for the Gotland sheep breed. Data were received from the Swedish Sheep Recording Scheme and included observations on 4-month weight (4MW) and pelt quality for 51,402 lambs and on weight (CW), fatness (FAT), and fleshiness (FLESH) of the carcass for 12,440 lambs. The lambs were born during the period 1991–2003. When maternal genetic and permanent environmental effects were included in the model direct heritabilities for the pelt quality traits varied between 0.16 and 0.25. Maternal heritabilities (0.01 to 0.05) and common environmental variances as a fraction of the total phenotypic variances (0.07 to 0.10) were low. Maternal heritabilities were higher for 4MW (0.11) and CW (0.12) than for the pelt quality traits. Direct-maternal genetic correlations were both for the pelt quality traits and for 4MW and CW generally negative and low to medium high. Direct genetic correlations between pelt quality traits on one hand and 4MW, CW, FAT or FLESH on the other hand were low (− 0.16 to 0.12). Maternal genetic correlations between pelt quality traits and 4MW or CW were positive and high (0.38 to 0.96). It was concluded that breeding for increased growth and improved carcass quality would not influence pelt quality negatively or vice versa. If maternal genetic effects are considered for 4MW and CW in the breeding program for the Gotland sheep breed, selection for maternal effects on 4MW and CW will have positive effects both on lamb weight and pelt quality.

Quantitative variation of melanins in llama ( Lama glama L.)

The amount of melanin pigments was investigated in 80 Argentinean llama, representative of seven phenotypes and four different fleece colours, by means of spectrophotometric assays: SpEM (spectrophotometric eumelanin), SpPM (spectrophotometric pheomelanin), SpASM (spectrophotometric alkali soluble melanin), and SpTM (spectrophotometric total melanin). It was found that, although to a different extent, the quantitative variation of these pigments was affected both by phenotypes and fleece colours and, hence, it was possible to identify and to distinguish homogeneous groups on the basis of these two factors. In particular, SpEM revealed the most reliable parameter for a discrimination among these groups. Low concentrations of this pigment characterize red, wild, and red black phenotypes and distinguish them from black and tan and non-agouti black ones, both showing high concentrations; low concentrations also distinguish reddish brown fleece colour from very dark red and black ones.

Skin lesions in alpacas and llamas with low zinc and copper status – a preliminary report

South American camelids kept as zoo or farm animals often display skin lesions, the aetiology of which remains unresolved. Mostly, only a few individuals in a herd are affected. The empirical treatment consists of oral doses of zinc (Zn), and lesions usually improve over two to three months. It is unclear whether the syndrome is a Zn deficiency or a disorder that responds to supraphysiological systemic Zn concentrations (Rosychuk, 1994). Although it has been mentioned that males and animals of dark fleece colour might be more susceptible (Fowler, 1989; Rosychuk, 1994), no systematic evaluation of factors that predispose animals to the condition has been published. A breeding herd of 13 llamas, 17 huacaya alpacas and 18 suri alpacas from a German farm was fed a diet of ad libitum hay and approximately 0.5 kg of a camelid feed per animal per day. Females and males of each species were kept in separate groups, and some males were kept individually. Except for one alpaca, the females had either given birth to a cria the same year or were considered pregnant by the owner. The animals received a regular prophylactic ivermectin treatment. Dry, scaly skin lesions were noted in 12 animals (25%; Table 1) on the bridge of the nose and the ears. Skin scrapings from four animals were investigated microscopically, but no signs of ectoparasites were detected.

Inbreeding and its effects on some economic traits in Raeini cashmere goats

The Breeding Center of Raeini (BCR) cashmere goats was established in 1965 in Kerman province, with a base population of 120, 8 and 42 does, bucks, and kids respectively. Some new animals have been introduced to the BCR population in some periods of time, and selected males have been sold out to the local breeders each year. Animals have been selected based on their phenotypic performance for fleece weight (FW) and fleece color (FC-white), and body weight (BW). Mating system has been planned based on non-relative mating, but some relative mating has been occurred. Inbreeding depression is one of the most important empact of having inbreeding in a population (Miglior and Burnside 1995). A decrease of 0.8% in fiber length and 6.3% in longevity per 10% increase of inbreeding coefficient in cashmere goats has been reported (Deb 1998). The objective of this study was to estimate the animals inbreeding coefficient and to explore the impact of inbreeding on some economic traits in Raeini cashmere goats.

Frequencies of fleece color genes in Upper Visso sheep

Frequencies of fleece color genes were evaluated in Italian Merino-crossbred Upper Visso sheep. Assuming panmixy, the frequencies of alleles at the A (Agouti), B (Brown) and S (Spotting) loci have been calculated in 1328 viable lambs, born by 90 rams and 1384 ewes in 4 flocks. The frequencies are: A wt = 0.866±0.014; A a = 0.134±0.014; B b = 0.204±0.100; B + = 0.796±0.100; S s = 0.998±0.000; S + = 0.002±0.000. At the locus E (Extension) the dominant epistatic allele E d was not found. The frequency of A a, the only mutant existing at locus A besides A wt, is higher than in other Merino crossbreds.