Flat Water Research Articles

The effect of added wire mesh on the thermal efficiency of the flat plate solar water heater collector

The current study looks into the effects of using wire mesh to expand the flat plate solar collector (FPSC) on the system's thermal efficiency under transient heat-flux without changing its dimensions and its placement to minimise the shadows cast on the collector while utilising passive methods to circulate the working fluid. Thus, the traditional model was investigated numerically (using ANSYS fluent) and experimentally to establish the accuracy of simulation results. Then, the three models, A, B, and C, were tested numerically. In model A, the mesh is used to cover the riser pipe. In model B, the mesh covers the collector plate; in model C, the mesh is placed on both the riser pipe and the plate. The wire mesh placement in all three models improved the thermal efficiency of the FPSC. In addition, model C proved to be paramount to all models under study, classical models A and B, by having a higher thermal efficiency of 41.4 %, 14 %, and 31.2 %, respectively.

What defines dry skin? Correlating a range of skin hydration parameters with InVivo Confocal Raman Spectroscopy.

While there are a wide range of approaches for the assessment of skin hydration, it is not always clear how data from them relate to one another or to the skin itself. With the development of invivo Confocal Raman Spectroscopy (ICRS), it has become possible to measure water concentration as a function of protein/depth within the stratum corneum (SC). This article reports a comparison between electrical skin hydration measures/visual/optical grading and water concentration profiles measured using ICRS, to better understand the relationship between these approaches. SC hydration of lower-leg skin with varying degrees of dryness was assessed using visual grading (live and from digital images), Corneometer®, Visioscan and ICRS. In addition, a custom fingerprint sensor was used to image surface capacitance (as a surrogate of SC hydration), and SC barrier function was assessed using evaporimetry (to measure trans-epidermal water loss; TEWL). Significant correlations were observed between a number of different skin grading/measurement approaches and ICRS data. ICRS hydration profiles also revealed a region near the SC surface with a relatively flat water profile in dry skin subjects. The advent of quantitative invivo analytical techniques such as ICRS, which can be used in a clinical setting, has enabled greater insight into more conventional approaches for assessing skin dryness. While traditional skin grading and biophysical methods for measuring skin hydration have varying degrees of correlation with one another, they also provide comparatively unique information about different regions within the SC. This should enable a more informed approach to product development in the future.

Water yield forecast in Shandong Province based on InVEST model

A better understanding of the effects of land use change and climate change on water yield is highly important for water resource planning and sustainable management. Land use changes in Shandong Province were analyzed over recent years. The PLUS Model was applied to forecast the land use layout for 2032, with adjustments made based on actual conditions and utilizing various CMIP6 scenarios for precipitation and actual evapotranspiration. The 2032 Water Yield was quantified using the InVEST Model at both grid and administrative scales, and its temporal-spatial characteristics and spatial correlation were analyzed. The findings revealed several key points: first, a decrease of 16.92% in arable land area, along with diminishing trends in grassland and unused land, and an increase of 33.92% in built-up land area, accompanied by growth in forest and water area. Second, the water yield decreases from southeast to northwest in Shandong Province, with significant inter-annual variations. Third, future predictions suggest that the annual water yield generally increases during flat water years, with offshore areas exhibiting greater water yield depth compared to inland areas. Rizhao is projected to have the highest water yield depth, while Binzhou and Dongying are expected to have the lowest depths, with a spatially positive correlation between them.

Investigation of a dual-spiral flat plate solar water heater under natural convection: an experimental study

In residential and industrial areas, a flat plate solar collector (FPSC) is an important technology that allows for direct solar energy utilisation for heating water. Conventional FPSCs have relatively low efficiency. More study is needed to increase the efficiency of FPSC by using novel designs. Modifications to the design of solar collectors are always a viable option for improving thermal efficiency significantly. In this study, dual spiral-shaped flow tubes were constructed instead of the usual flat plate solar collector's number of riser tubes and headers and tested with three different mass flow rates (0.0058, 0.0083, and 0.0117 kg/s). The optimum instantaneous efficiency achieved is 70.8% at a flow rate of 0.0117 kg/s, representing a 13.7% improvement in efficiency compared to the conventional collector. The modified collector achieves its highest instantaneous efficiency when the outlet water temperature is measured at 53.4°C. The modified collector improves heat transfer by increasing surface contact area of water and increasing the flow residence time. This results in a higher absorption of heat by the water, leading to a significant enhancement in the efficiency. When all other parameters are kept the same as in a conventional design, highly encouraging results in modified solar collector have been recorded.

A copula-based approach to instream ecological flow determination considering inter- and intra-annual runoff variability

ABSTRACT Instream ecological flow (IEF) provides a flow reference value for maintaining the stability of river ecosystems and enriching biodiversity. Existing methods for determining the IEF often consider only one of the intra-annual runoff distribution characteristics or the inter-annual runoff distribution characteristics. In this study, a copula-based ecological runoff determination method is proposed to consider both annual and monthly runoff magnitudes. The marginal distribution functions of annual and monthly runoff are first determined using the maximum likelihood method. Then the copula function is used to construct the joint distribution function of annual and monthly runoff series. Using the flow duration curve method, the IEF under different annual and monthly runoff exceedance probabilities is calculated. The probability values are combined with the initial IEF values to determine the final IEF process. A case study is conducted using real-world data from the Tongtian River in China. The results show that the total annual basic ecological water demands of the Tongtian River in abundant, flat, and dry water years are 138, 102 and 72.2 billion m3. The proposed method effectively avoids the disturbance of extreme runoff.

Resilient spatial design strategies research of urban inland rivers: The case of Xinghai Lake wetland in Ningxia, China

Improving the resilience of rivers is a crucial method for mitigating urban flooding, restoring the ecological role of rivers, and promoting sustainable ecological development. This study specifically examines the relationship between changes in river morphology and river elasticity space, using the Xinghai Lake wetland as a case study. The MIKE 21 numerical model is employed to simulate and analyze the morphology changes of Xinghai Lake under various conditions during both the low-water and high-water periods. The findings indicated that during the period of abundant water, the inundation area of Xinghai Lake increased by 1.64 times, the average water level rose by 0.96 m, and the average flow speed decreased by approximately 11.8 % compared to the flat water period under the circulating condition within the lake. By utilizing Xinghai Lake as a channel for overflowing Yellow River water, the stability of the lake's body is improved. When Xinghai Lake is utilized as the channel for water from the Yellow River, it contributes to the increased stability of the lake. Based on the morphological characteristics of various river sections, this study identifies the potential areas for scouring, eutrophication, and flooding in the future. It also suggests specific strategic solutions to improve the resilience and ecological robustness of the river. These proposals aim to provide scientific support for enhancing the ecological robustness of urban inland lakes.

Intensification of thermal characteristics of flat plate solar water heater using triangular perforated wavy tape

The efficiency of the flat Plate Solar water heater has improved experimentally using passive methods. Experiments have shown that the addition of wavy tape (WT), 6 mm perforated wavy tape (PWT), and 9 mm perforated wavy tape (PWT) to a forced circulation solar water heater improves rate of heat transfer (Nu), friction factor (f), and effectiveness. Wavy tape inside the pipes induces secondary swirl flow, which improves mixing and increases heat transfer coefficients. The heat transfer rate (Nu) is increased by the incorporation of wavy tape; FPC with 6 PWT was higher than FPC without WT, FPC with plain WT, and FPC with 9 PWT by 20.83%, 14.85% and 6.25%, respectively. The maximum temperature difference of FPC with 6 PWT was higher than FPC without WT, FPC with plain WT, and FPC with 9 PWT by 61.9%, 22.9%, and 12.62% respectively. The maximum efficiencies value observed was 37.55%, 49.46%, 54.013%, and 51.03% for FPC without WT, FPC with plain WT, FPC with 6 PWT, and FPC with 9 PWT, respectively.

Study on the photothermal conversion enhancement performance and application of the metal-polyphenol phase-change microcapsules modified by molybdenum disulfide

Aiming to improving photothermal conversion and heat storage efficiency, layered molybdenum disulfide (MoS2) was prepared with hydrothermal method, which was used as the thermally conductive and photothermal conversion material to modify metal-polyphenol (MPN) /paraffin (PA) microcapsules. The fabricated phase-change microcapsules (MoS2/MPN@PA-MEPCM) exhibits excellent thermal conductivity, photothermal conversion and heat storage performance. The effect of the additive amount of MoS2 on the leakage performance, microstructure, thermal conductivity, heat storage capacity, thermal stability and photothermal conversion performance of MoS2/MPN@PA-MEPCM was investigated. Furthermore, the enhancement mechanisms of the thermal conductivity and photothermal conversion were analyzed. The results show that when the additive amount of MoS2 is 10 wt%, the phase-change enthalpy of MoS2/MPN@PA-MEPCM reaches 127.1 J/g with an encapsulation ratio of 53.74 %. Compared to MPN@PA-MEPCM, the thermal conductivity of MoS2/MPN@PA-MEPCM increases by 88.45 % and the photothermal conversion and heat storage efficiency reaches 90.78 %. When the solar radiation intensity is 800 W/m2 and 1000 W/m2, the thermal efficiency of PFPSC is 57.17 % and 59.45 % respectively, which is higher than that of FPSC. The operation time of PFPSC is extended by 2435 s and 2750 s, respectively, improving the operational stability of flat plate solar water heaters. The developed microcapsules in this study demonstrate significant potential for highly efficient solar energy utilization and thermal energy storage in the fields of seawater desalination, solar water heating system and building heating.

Millimeter wave-based patient setup verification and motion tracking during radiotherapy.

Position verification and motion monitoring are critical for safe and precise radiotherapy (RT). Existing approaches to these tasks based on visible light or x-ray are suboptimal either because they cannot penetrate obstructions to the patient's skin or introduce additional radiation exposure. The low-cost mmWave radar is an ideal solution for these tasks as it can monitor patient position and motion continuously throughout the treatment delivery. To develop and validate frequency-modulated continuous wave (FMCW) mmWave radars for position verification and motion tracking during RT delivery. A 77GHz FMCW mmWave module was used in this study. Chirp Z Transform-based (CZT) algorithm was developed to process the intermediate frequency (IF) signals. Absolute distances to flat Solid Water slabs and human shape phantoms were measured. The accuracy of absolute distance and relative displacement were evaluated. Without obstruction, mmWave based on the CZT algorithm was able to detect absolute distance within 1mm for a Solid Water slab that simulated the reflectivity of the human body. Through obstructive materials, the mmWave device was able to detect absolute distance within 5mm in the worst case and within 3.5mm in most cases. The CZT algorithm significantly improved the accuracy of absolute distance measurement compared with Fast Fourier Transform (FFT) algorithm and was able to achieve submillimeter displacement accuracy with and without obstructions. The surface-to-skin distance (SSD) measurement accuracy was within 8mm in the anterior of the phantom. With the CZT signal processing algorithm, the mmWave radar is able to measure the absolute distance to a flat surface within 1mm. But the absolute distance measurement to a human shape phantom is as large as 8mm at some angles. Further improvement is necessary to improve the accuracy of SSD measurement to uneven surfaces by the mmWave radar.

Structural analysis and optimal design of a spherical thin-walled stainless steel water tank without reinforced tie ribs

A spherical thin-walled stainless steel water tank without reinforced tie ribs has been designed to address the issues of easy fracture and corrosion of the ribs, difficulty in maintenance and cleaning, and short service life exposed during the use of thin-walled stainless steel water tanks with reinforced tie ribs. Firstly, an analytical model of a flat steel thin-walled water tank without reinforced tie ribs was established and subjected to static analysis under water pressure. The deformation and stress distribution patterns of the side molded plate of the flat box were obtained. Secondly, a spherical non ribbed thin-walled stainless steel water tank structure was designed with circular cross-section under different box bulge parameters, and its mechanical response characteristics under water pressure load were analyzed. A strengthening scheme was designed for the bottom box molded plate. Once again, optimize the combination design of the box scheme and the reinforcement scheme, and analyze their static, thermodynamic, and thermal solid coupling performance. Finally, the Latin Hypercube Sampling method was used to generate experimental design samples, and a response surface approximation model of a spherical thin-walled stainless steel water tank without reinforced tie ribs was constructed. The wall thickness of the box molded plate, skeleton, and reinforcement were used as design variables, and the maximum deformation and maximum equivalent stress were used as constraints. The lightweight design was carried out with the goal of minimizing mass. The research results indicate that the design program and parameter selection method for spherical thin-walled stainless steel water tanks without reinforced tie ribs proposed in the article are efficient and feasible, and can provide technical reference and theoretical support for the layout and overall optimization design of non ribbed thin-walled stainless steel water tank structures.

Energetic and exergetic study of a flat plate collector based solar water heater - investigation of the absorber size

Small sized absorber in a flat plate solar collector is beneficial in terms of cost and minimum heat losses. However, its detailed thermal performance compared to standard size collector is still not fully understood. There is a paucity of research to appreciate thermal performance of solar water heating collector with consideration of a small absorber size (below 1m2) and a standard absorber size (2 m2). The present study attempts to investigate the energy and exergy efficiencies of flat plate solar water heating collector with two absorber plate areas (2 m2 and 0.74 m2) to enumerate size of the absorber required for improved first and second law thermal efficiencies of the collector. The efficiencies of these two collector designs are experimentally compared with the help of a test facility available in the site for given operating temperatures and rate of flow. The combined experimental uncertainty due to the measuring instruments and the measured parameters is also ascertained. The obtained results highlight the significance of the larger absorber size (2m2) for higher thermal efficiency, and lower absorber size (0.74m2) for higher exergetic efficiency. The highest thermal efficiency obtained is 77.38% for larger absorber size, and the highest exergy efficiency of 13.21% is obtained for lower absorber size collector. It is demonstrated that larger and lower absorber size of the collector have higher thermal efficiency and higher exergy efficiency, respectively, than some of the published works.

Investigation of non-line-of-sight underwater optical wireless communications with wavy surface.

Underwater optical wireless communication (UOWC) systems have been widely researched to achieve high-speed and secure wireless communications. The non-line-of-sight (NLOS) UOWC system that uses the water surface to reflect signal light is widely studied to overcome the line-of-sight (LOS) channel limitation, particularly the channel blockage issue by marine biology or complex underwater topography. However, most previous NLOS UOWC studies have assumed a flat water surface or a general sine or cosine surface wave model for simplicity, leading to inaccurate performance estimations. In this paper, we build a theoretical NLOS UOWC framework with the Pierson wave model which considers both spatial correlation and time relativity information of wave incorporating wind speed, and investigate the signal-noise-ratio (SNR) and bit-error-rate (BER) performance. Results show that compared with the previous flat surface, the wavy surface can reduce the probability of achieving a satisfying signal level by up to 70%, affecting the performance of NLOS UOWC systems. Furthermore, we investigate the multiple-input-multiple-output (MIMO)-based NLOS UOWC under wavy surfaces. Results show that the MIMO principle can reduce the impact of the wavy surface, where the probability of achieving a satisfying signal level can be increased by up to 50% using the 2 × 4 MIMO configuration. However, results also show that further increasing the number of receivers may not further improve the system performance. The proposed model enables more accurate design and analysis of NLOS UOWC systems by accounting for the overlooked impact of wavy surfaces.

Source apportionment and predictable driving factors contribute to antibiotics profiles in Changshou Lake of the Three Gorges Reservoir area, China

Lakes, crucial antibiotic reservoirs, lack thorough exploration of quantitative relationships between antibiotics and influencing factors. Here, we conducted a comprehensive year-long investigation in Changshou Lake within the Three Gorges Reservoir area, China. The concentrations of 21 antibiotics spanned 35.6–200 ng/L, 50.3–348 ng/L and 0.57–57.9 ng/g in surface water, overlying water and sediment, respectively. Compared with abundant water period, surface water and overlying water displayed significantly high antibiotic concentrations in flat and low water periods, while sediment remained unchanged. Moreover, tetracyclines, fluoroquinolones and erythromycin posed notable risks to algae. Six primary sources were identified using positive matrix factorization model, with aquaculture contributing 21.2%, 22.7% and 25.4% in surface water, overlying water and sediment, respectively. The crucial predictors were screened through machine learning, redundancy analysis and Mantel test. Our findings emphasized the pivotal roles of water quality parameters, including water temperature (WT), pH, dissolved oxygen, electrical conductivity, inorganic anions (NO3⁻, Cl⁻ and F⁻) and metal cations (Ca, Mg, Fe, K and Cr), with WT influencing greatest. Total nitrogen (TN), cation exchange capacity, K, Al and Cd significantly impacted sediment antibiotics, with TN having the most pronounced effect. This study can promise valuable insights for environmental planning and policies addressing antibiotic pollution.

Real-time outdoor experiment and performance analysis of dual-coil heat exchanger integrated thermal energy storage

Integrating a thermal energy storage system into a solar water heater enables a continuous heat supply to ensure hot water is available for household uses throughout the day. This research emphasizes integrating TES units into solar water heating systems. The overall performance of flat plate solar water heaters for a regular (conventional) solar water heating system and a solar water heating system integrated with TES using phase change material (PCM) are analyzed. This innovative design ensures efficient heat capture from the sun, storing it in the phase change material for later use, guaranteeing a sustainable and cost-effective solution for hot water needs. A split PCM tank is integrated within the solar water heating network for the second scenario and is made of a 25 L filled with a phase change material that acts as the thermal storage medium. The PCM tank has a dual-coiled heat exchanger to aid the heat transfer process with paraffin wax as the phase change material. The parameters that are looked into from the conventional and TES-integrated solar water heating systems include the water temperature profiles throughout the entire solar water heating networks and the PCM's temperature distribution throughout the day. A customized water draw schedule is adapted to represent the average hot water usage of a typical household in Kuala Lumpur. Findings reveal that the TES-integrated solar water heating system can be 21 % more efficient than the conventional system due to the lesser heat losses and prolonged hot water supply. The maximum efficiency obtained is about 82 %, and energy can be saved about 50 % from the electric heater. The maximum energy storage is at the 50 °C temperature controller's setting and is feasible for the existing conventional solar water heaters.

Investigations on a solar humidification dehumidification desalination system equipped with various packing materials and multi-stage bubble column dehumidifier.

This work presents the theoretical and experimental investigation of a solar-powered humidification dehumidification desalination (HDD) system with different humidifier packing materials and a two-stage bubble column dehumidifier (BCD). Naturally available coconut shells (CS) and coconut shells with drilled holes (CSH) on the surface to improve water permeability were used as packing materials in the humidifier, and their performance was compared with that of commercial-type pall ring (PR) and raschig ring (RR) packings. An in-house developed numerical model of the HDD system in conjunction with a flat plate solar water collector was used in this study. Steady-state experimental results showed that CSH packing exhibited the highest volumetric mass transfer coefficient (0.00852kg/s), resulting in maximum humidifier efficiency (96%) and freshwater yield (2.16kg/hr), followed by PR (0.00841kg/s, 94%, and 2.137kg/hr), CS (0.00831kg/s, 90%, and 2.127kg/hr), and RR (0.0081kg/s, 81%, and 2.087kg/hr) at feedwater mass flow rate of 1.5kg/min and humidifier inlet temperature of 75 [Formula: see text]. Furthermore, transient outdoor test results showed that using a two-stage configuration in a BCD increased the daily average effectiveness to 0.93, as against 0.79 for a single-stage BCD. Employing CSH instead of PR and RR packings in the humidifier reduced freshwater costs by 6.2% and 7.6%, respectively.

Effects of different mulch materials on the photosynthetic characteristics, yield, and soil water use efficiency of wheat in Loess tableland

Due to the lack of precipitation and poor temporal and spatial stability in the Loess Plateau for a long time, it is necessary to adopt mulching technology to support the stable and high yield of wheat cultivation system. This study aims at exploring different mulching materials on the soil water content, photosynthetic characteristics, wheat yield, and yield components of winter wheat in the gully region of the Loess Plateau. The results showed that the traditional flat soil water content is the lowest in the seedling stage. In the jointing stage and heading stage of many crop water requirements, ridge film mulching treatment can effectively promote the growth of wheat and increase the water use efficiency. The leaf area index (LAI) of different treatments wheat showed a trend of increasing first and then decreasing. In the jointing stage, ordinary mulching film (T1) and liquid mulching film (T3) had the highest LAI content, which were 3.78 and 3.71 respectively. The Pn and Gs in wheat flag leaves of T3 treatment is higher than that of CK throughout the entire growth period, and T3 significantly increased Ci and WUEi in different growth stage. And the grain number per panicle and grain weight of T3 treatment were 24.44 and 41.00 g, which were 19.3% and 5.4% higher than CK, respectively. Through the actual production calculation of the final harvest, the ridge film mulching has a significant increase in production compared with the CK. The yield of T3 treatment was 4980.25 kg hm−2, which was 29.37% higher than CK. It was significantly different from CK (P < 0.05). Based on the comprehensive analysis, the ridge film mulching treatment significantly affected the soil water content and wheat yield. And the liquid mulching film had the best effect. Exploring the impact of different covering techniques on the wheat cultivation system in the Loess Plateau region, to promote the scientific promotion of this technology.

The thermal impact of stored water as supplementary energy source for a solar air heater

AbstractSolar energy system optimization is a critical consideration for expanding its reach and competitiveness against traditional energy sources. This study specifically targets solar flat plate collectors, focusing on the concept of solar air collectors with an innovative enhancement strategy. To fulfill energy requirements across various applications like heating and drying, setting up collector arrays, such as solar air and water heaters, becomes imperative for meeting desired energy outputs. This research employs numerical analysis to investigate the energy efficiency of a modified solar air heater (MSAH). The enhancement involves integrating a parallelepiped enclosure filled with water, connected to a solar flat plate water collector, into the collector's rear. This water‐filled enclosure serves as a storage tank for the solar water heater. Simulation using the Fluent CFD code is conducted based on meteorological conditions at the Renewable Energy Development Center (CDER) in Bouzaréah, Algeria. Numerical outcomes are compared with experimental findings. Results indicate the positive impact of utilizing the water storage tank as an additional energy source. This modification leads to a substantial 57% performance increase in the MSAH compared with the standard version. This elevated efficiency remains consistent even during periods of reduced solar radiation, owing to the supplementary energy contribution from the solar water heater. In contrast, the standard version's performance hinges solely on available solar radiation for energy generation. This research underscores the potential of combining solar air and water heaters to enhance solar energy systems' efficiency and dependability, facilitating their practical implementation and sustainable utilization.

Thermal performance of a novel water blind-Trombe wall system: A comparative experimental investigation

A traditional Trombe wall suffers from undesired heat gains, single service function, and poor aesthetic appearance, and these drawbacks act as a barrier to its widespread application. This study introduced a newly designed Trombe wall, which neatly incorporated a water-flowing channel and venetian blind (named WBTW). The WBTW can efficiently provide space heating, domestic hot water, and simultaneously act as a shade for reducing cooling load in hot summer. To examine the operating performance of the WBTW under different modes, long-term comparative experiments between a room with the WBTW and that with a flat plate solar water collector (SCCW) and one with a conventional south wall were conducted under realistic climate conditions. Through the test under hot water mode, it was observed that the average thermal efficiency of the WBTW reached 52.8% throughout different seasons, which was 8.2% higher than that of the SCCW. Furthermore, in summer the combined use of external circulation ventilation and water circulation for the WBTW was suggested to avoid overheating phenomenon although that was at the sacrifice of hot water temperature. Space heating experiments showed that the coefficient of thermal comfort enhancement was 0.744 for the room with WBTW under linked air–water heating mode, while that was only 0.155 under stand-alone air heating mode. Finally, based on the validated theoretical model of the WBTW system, a sensitivity analysis of operating and structural parameters was conducted. As to the influence on the annual heat gains of the WBTW system, the order was blinds angle (a) > the ratio of blind spacing to width (r) > air inlet velocity (v) > water mass flow rate (w) > air channel depth (d). The optimum level combination was a = 30°, r = 1, v = 0.4 m/s, w = 0.08 kg/s and d = 0.3 m.

Drift flow on the water surface with a film of hydrophobic particles in a uniform and decelerating air flow

The effect of a film of hydrophobic dust particles on the water surface on the development of a drift current under the influence of wind is studied. In a uniform air flow on a flat water surface, the drift current is caused by viscous forces and increases along the fetch. The formation of stationary waves on a drift current is found if the drift velocity is 𝑈𝑑𝑟&gt; 0.23 m/s. In a decelerating air flow in the presence of wind waves, the total component of the drift velocity 𝑈𝑠𝑢𝑚 cyclically increases and drops to a viscous component when a steep wind wave breaks up into longer linear waves. As the particle settling time Ts increases, the maximum ratio 𝑈𝑤/𝑈𝑠𝑢𝑚 decreases from 0.6 for pure water to 0.3 for Ts = 4 days

Flat bread baking: Single to double layer transition

Double-layered flat bread features an impressive oven rise and delamination during baking, leading to the formation of an internal pocket capable of holding various solid foods – a key quality criterion for consumers. These breads are unique in their baking method, which requires specialized ovens and high temperatures between 350 and 550 °C. Use of high baking temperatures to achieve the double layering development (called delamination) during baking has raised concerns over excessive energy consumption. In this study, whether or not the application of fermentation (affecting the accumulation of dissolved CO2) and baking temperature (which affects gas generation) were varied and the impacts on delamination were evaluated. To complement this evaluation, dough water content and temperature were monitored during baking. In a novel manner, this study characterized water distribution in flat bread, explaining the surprising decrease of water loss with increasing baking temperature. Our study has clearly shown water vapor to be the prime cause of delamination. The role of water pressure in dough inflation and in causing the edges to detach from the deck and the heterogeneity of flat bread water content were highlighted and a concept map proposed.