Flare-productive Active Regions Research Articles

Magnetic helicity evolution during active region emergence and subsequent flare productivity

Aims. Solar active regions (ARs), which are formed by flux emergence, serve as the primary sources of solar eruptions. However, the specific physical mechanism that governs the emergence process and its relationship with flare productivity remains to be thoroughly understood. Methods. We examined 136 emerging ARs, focusing on the evolution of their magnetic helicity and magnetic energy during the emergence phase. Based on the relation between helicity accumulation and magnetic flux evolution, we categorized the samples and investigated their flare productivity. Results. The emerging ARs we studied can be categorized into three types, Type-I, Type-II, and Type-III, and they account for 52.2%, 25%, and 22.8% of the total number in our sample, respectively. Type-I ARs exhibit a synchronous increase in both the magnetic flux and magnetic helicity, while the magnetic helicity in Type-II ARs displays a lag in increasing behind the magnetic flux. Type-III ARs show obvious helicity injections of opposite signs. Significantly, 90% of the flare-productive ARs (flare index ≥ 6) were identified as Type-I ARs, suggesting that this type of AR has a higher potential to become flare productive. In contrast, Type-II and Type-III ARs exhibited a low and moderate likelihood of becoming active, respectively. Our statistical analysis also revealed that Type-I ARs accumulate more magnetic helicity and energy, far beyond what is found in Type-II and Type-III ARs. Moreover, we observed that flare-productive ARs consistently accumulate a significant amount of helicity and energy during their emergence phase. Conclusions. These findings provide valuable insight into the flux emergence phenomena, offering promising possibilities for early-stage predictions of solar eruptions.

A statistical study of magnetic flux emergence in solar active regions prior to strongest flares

Abstract Using the data on magnetic field maps and continuum intensity for Solar Cycles 23 and 24, we explored 100 active regions (ARs) that produced M5.0 or stronger flares. We focus on the presence/absence of the emergence of magnetic flux in these ARs 2-3 days before the strong flare onset. We found that 29 ARs in the sample emerged monotonously amidst quiet-Sun. A major emergence of a new magnetic flux within pre-existing AR yielding the formation of a complex flare-productive configuration was observed in another 24 cases. For 30 ARs, an insignificant (in terms of the total magnetic flux of pre-existing AR) emergence of a new magnetic flux within the pre-existing magnetic configuration was observed; for some of them the emergence resulted in a formation of a configuration with a small $\delta$-sunspot. 11 out of 100 ARs exhibited no signatures of magnetic flux emergence during the entire interval of observation. In 6 cases the emergence was in progress when the AR appeared on the Eastern limb, so that the classification and timing of emergence were not possible. We conclude that the recent flux emergence is not a necessary and/or sufficient condition for strong flaring of an AR. The flux emergence rate of analyzed here flare-productive ARs was compared with that of flare-quiet ARs analyzed in our previous studies. We revealed that the flare-productive ARs tend to display faster emergence than the flare-quiet ones do.

What Are the Causes of Super Activity of Solar Active Regions?

Flare productivity varies among solar active regions (ARs). This study analyzed 20 ARs of contrasting sunspot areas and flare productivities to understand the super flare productivity of certain ARs. We used the flare index (FI) as an indicator of flare activity. We examined the pattern of morphological evolution of magnetic features. Further, we derived a set of magnetic feature parameters to quantitatively characterize ARs. Our study found that the correlation coefficient is the highest (r = 0.78) between FI and the length of the strong gradient polarity inversion line (SgPIL), while the coefficient is the lowest (r = 0.14) between FI and the total unsigned magnetic flux. For the selected ARs, this study also found that the super flare productive ARs have SgPILs (R value) longer (greater) than 50 Mm (4.5). These results suggest that flare productivity is mainly controlled by the size of the subregion that comprises close interaction of opposite magnetic polarities and is weakly correlated with the size of the whole ARs. Further, even though magnetic flux emergence is important, this study shows that it alone is insufficient to increase flare productivity. New emergence can drive either the interaction of like or opposite magnetic polarities of nonconjugate pairs (i.e., polarities not from the same bipole). In the former case, the magnetic configuration remains simple, and flare productivity would be low. In the latter case, the convergence of opposite magnetic fluxes of nonconjugate pairs results in a magnetic configuration with long SgPIL and an increase in flare productivity.

Eruption of a Magnetic Flux Rope in a Comprehensive Radiative Magnetohydrodynamic Simulation of Flare-productive Active Regions

Radiative magnetohydrodynamic simulation includes sufficiently realistic physics to allow for the synthesis of remote sensing observables that can be quantitatively compared with observations. We analyze the largest flare in a simulation of the emergence of large flare-productive active regions described by Chen et al. The flare releases 4.5 × 1031 erg of magnetic energy and is accompanied by a spectacular coronal mass ejection. Synthetic soft X-ray flux of this flare reaches M2 class. The eruption reproduces many key features of observed solar eruptions. A preexisting magnetic flux rope is formed along the highly sheared polarity inversion line between a sunspot pair and is covered by an overlying multipole magnetic field. During the eruption, the progenitor flux rope actively reconnects with the canopy field and evolves to the large-scale multithermal flux rope that is observed in the corona. Meanwhile, the magnetic energy released via reconnection is channeled down to the lower atmosphere and gives rise to bright soft X-ray post-flare loops and flare ribbons that reproduce the morphology and dynamic evolution of observed flares. The model helps to shed light on questions of where and when the a flux rope may form and how the magnetic structures in an eruption are related to observable emission properties.

A Statistical Study of IRIS Observational Signatures of Nanoflares and Nonthermal Particles

Nanoflares are regarded as one of the major mechanisms of magnetic energy release and coronal heating in the solar outer atmosphere. We conduct a statistical study on the response of the chromosphere and transition region to nanoflares, as observed by the Interface Region Imaging Spectrograph (IRIS), by using an algorithm for the automatic detection of these events. The initial atmospheric response to these small heating events is observed, with IRIS, as transient brightening at the foot points of coronal loops heated to high temperatures (>4 MK). For four active regions, observed over 143 hr, we detected 1082 footpoint brightenings under the IRIS slit, and for those we extracted physical parameters from the IRIS Mg ii and Si iv spectra that are formed in the chromosphere and transition region, respectively. We investigate the distributions of the spectral parameters, and the relationships between the parameters, also comparing them with predictions from RADYN numerical simulations of nanoflare-heated loops. We find that these events, and the presence of nonthermal particles, tend to be more frequent in flare productive active regions, and where the hot 94 Å emission measured by the Atmospheric Imaging Assembly is higher. We find evidence for highly dynamic motions characterized by strong Si iv nonthermal velocities (not dependent on the heliocentric x-coordinate, i.e., on the angle between the magnetic field and the line of sight) and asymmetric Mg ii spectra. These findings provide tight new constraints on the properties of nanoflares and nonthermal particles in active regions, and their effects on the lower atmosphere.

Investigation of the Oscillations in a Flare-productive Active Region

We investigate the oscillations in active region (AR) NOAA 12891, which produces a C2.0 three-ribbon flare accompanying a jet on 2021 November 2. Using the data from the Atmospheric Imaging Assembly onboard the Solar Dynamics Observatory, the 5 minutes decayless kink oscillations of coronal loops were detected and they are independent of the solar flare. Based on the observed oscillations and seismological diagnostics, we estimate that the Alfvén speed and magnetic field in these coronal loops are around 466 km s−1 and 7.6 G, respectively. Additionally, the flare-related jet shows its plasmoids with 1 minute periodicity same as the intensity fluctuation of nearby flare ribbon. The correlation between the intensity fluctuation of jet and that of flare ribbon indicates that their 1 minute oscillations should originate from the same reconnection process.

Radiative Magnetohydrodynamic Simulation of the Confined Eruption of a Magnetic Flux Rope: Magnetic Structure and Plasma Thermodynamics

It is widely believed that magnetic flux ropes are the key structure of solar eruptions; however, their observable counterparts are not clear yet. We study a flare associated with flux rope eruption in a comprehensive radiative magnetohydrodynamic simulation of flare-productive active regions, especially focusing on the thermodynamic properties of the plasma involved in the eruption and their relation to the magnetic flux rope. The preexisting flux rope, which carries cold and dense plasma, rises quasi-statically before the onset of eruptions. During this stage, the flux rope does not show obvious signatures in extreme ultraviolet (EUV) emission. After the flare onset, a thin “current shell” is generated around the erupting flux rope. Moreover, a current sheet is formed under the flux rope, where two groups of magnetic arcades reconnect and create a group of postflare loops. The plasma within the “current shell,” current sheet, and postflare loops are heated to more than 10 MK. The postflare loops give rise to abundant soft X-ray emission. Meanwhile, a majority of the plasma hosted in the flux rope is heated to around 1 MK, and the main body of the flux rope is manifested as a bright arch in cooler EUV passbands such as the AIA 171 Å channel.

Observations of Extremely Strong Magnetic Fields in Active Region NOAA 12673 Using GST Magnetic Field Measurement

Abstract We present a detailed study of very strong magnetic fields in the NOAA Active Region (AR) 12673, which was the most flare productive AR in solar cycle 24. It produced four X-class flares including the X9.3 flare on 2017 September 6 and the X8.2 limb event on September 10. Our analysis is based on direct measurements of full Zeeman splitting of the Fe i 1564.85 nm line using all Stokes I, Q, U, and V profiles. This approach allowed us to obtain reliable estimates of the magnitude of magnetic fields independent of the filling factor and atmosphere models. Thus, the strongest fields up to 5.5 kG were found in a light bridge (LB) of a spot, while in the dark umbra magnetic fields did not exceed 4 kG. In the case of the LB, the magnitude of the magnetic field is not related to the underlying continuum intensity, while in the case of umbral fields we observed a well-known anticorrelation between the continuum intensity and the field magnitude. In this study, the LB was cospatial with a polarity inversion line of δ-sunspot, and we speculate that the 5.5 kG strong horizontal fields may be associated with a compact twisted flux rope at or near the photosphere. A comparison of the depth of the Zeeman π and σ components showed that in the LB magnetic fields are, on average, more horizontal than those in the dark umbra.

Magnetic helicity and energy budget around large confined and eruptive solar flares

Context. In order to better understand the underlying processes and prerequisites for solar activity, it is essential to study the time evolution of the coronal magnetic field of solar active regions (ARs) associated with flare activity. Aims. We investigate the coronal magnetic energy and helicity budgets of ten solar ARs around the times of large flares. In particular, we are interested in a possible relation of the derived quantities to the particular type of the flares that the AR produces, namely, whether they are associated with a CME or whether they are confined (i.e., not accompanied by a CME). Methods. Using an optimization approach, we employed time series of 3D nonlinear force-free magnetic field models of ten ARs, covering a time span of several hours around the time of occurrence of large solar flares (GOES class M1.0 and larger). We subsequently computed the 3D magnetic vector potentials associated to the model 3D coronal magnetic field using a finite-volume method. This allows us to correspondingly compute the coronal magnetic energy and helicity budgets, as well as related (intensive) quantities such as the relative contribution of free magnetic energy, EF/E (energy ratio), the fraction of non-potential (current-carrying) helicity, |HJ|/|HV| (helicity ratio), and the normalized current-carrying helicity, |HJ|/ϕ′2. Results. The total energy and helicity budgets of flare-productive ARs (extensive parameters) cover a broad range of magnitudes, with no obvious relation to the eruptive potential of the individual ARs, that is, whether or not a CME is produced in association with the flare. The intensive eruptivity proxies, EF/E and |HJ|/|HV|, and |HJ|/ϕ′2, however, seem to be distinctly different for ARs that produce CME-associated large flares compared to those which produce confined flares. For the majority of ARs in our sample, we are able to identify characteristic pre-flare magnitudes of the intensive quantities that are clearly associated with subsequent CME-productivity. Conclusions. If the corona of an AR exhibits characteristic values of ⟨|HJ|/|HV|⟩ > 0.1, ⟨EF/E⟩ > 0.2, and ⟨|HJ|/ϕ′2⟩ > 0.005, then the AR is likely to produce large CME-associated flares. Conversely, confined large flares tend to originate from ARs that exhibit coronal values of ⟨|HJ|/|HV|⟩ ≲ 0.1, ⟨EF/E⟩ ≲ 0.1, and ⟨|HJ|/ϕ′2⟩ ≲ 0.002.

Flux emergence and generation of flare-productive active regions

Solar flares and coronal mass ejections are among the most prominent manifestations of the magnetic activity of the Sun. The strongest events of them tend to occur in active regions (ARs) that are large, complex, and dynamically evolving. However, it is not clear what the key observational features of such ARs are, and how these features are produced. This article answers these fundamental questions based on morphological and magnetic characteristics of flare-productive ARs and their evolutionary processes, i.e., large-scale flux emergence and subsequent AR formation, which have been revealed in observational and theoretical studies. We also present the latest modeling of flare-productive ARs achieved using the most realistic flux emergence simulations in a very deep computational domain. Finally, this review discusses the future perspective pertaining to relationships of flaring solar ARs with the global-scale dynamo and stellar superflares.

Magnetic Helicity Flux across Solar Active Region Photospheres. II. Association of Hemispheric Sign Preference with Flaring Activity during Solar Cycle 24

Abstract In our earlier study (Paper I) of this series, we examined the hemispheric sign preference (HSP) of magnetic helicity flux dH/dt across photospheric surfaces of 4802 samples of 1105 unique active regions (ARs) observed during solar cycle 24. Here, we investigate any association of the HSP, expressed as a degree of compliance, with flaring activity, analyzing the same set of dH/dt estimates as used in Paper I. The AR samples under investigation are assigned to heliographic regions (HRs) defined in the Carrington longitude–latitude plane with a grid spacing of 45° in longitude and 15° in latitude. For AR samples in each of the defined HRs, we calculate the degree of HSP compliance and the average soft X-ray flare index. The strongest flaring activity is found to be in one distinctive HR with an extremely low-HSP compliance of 41% as compared to the mean and standard deviation of 62% and 7%, respectively, over all HRs. This sole HR shows an anti-HSP (i.e., <50%) and includes the highly flare-productive AR NOAA 12673, however this AR is not uniquely responsible for the HR’s low HSP. We also find that all HRs with the highest flaring activity are located in the southern hemisphere, and they tend to have lower degrees of HSP compliance. These findings point to the presence of localized regions of the convection zone with enhanced turbulence, imparting a greater magnetic complexity and a higher flaring rate to some rising magnetic flux tubes.

On the possibility of probing the flare productivity of an active region in the early stage of emergence

ABSTRACT Prediction of the future flare productivity of an active region (AR) when it is in the early-emergence stage is a longstanding problem. The aim of this study is to probe two parameters of the photospheric magnetic field, both derived during the emergence phase of an AR, and to compare them with the flare productivity of a well developed AR. The parameters are: (i) the index of the magnetic power spectrum (the slope of the spectrum) at the stage of emergence, and (ii) the flux emergence rate. Analysis of 243 emerging ARs showed that the magnetic power index increases from values typical of quiet-Sun regions to those typical of mature ARs within a day, while the emergence proceeds for several days; frequently, after the increase, the value of the power index oscillates around some mean value with the fluctuations being several times smaller than the growth of the power index during the emergence onset. For a subset of 34 flare-productive ARs we found no correlation between the power spectrum index at the stage of emergence and the flare index derived from the entire interval of the AR’s presence on the disc. At the same time, the flux emergence rate correlates well with the flare index (Pearson’s correlation coefficient is 0.74). We conclude that a high flux emergence rate is a necessary condition for an AR to produce strong flares in the future; thus the flux emergence rate can be used to probe the future flare productivity of an AR.

FEATURES OF THE DEVELOPMENT OF A CIRCULAR SOLAR FLARE

We present the results of the analysis ofmorphology and evolution of the circular solar flare usingH-alpha images. H-alpha filtergrams were obtained withthe Meudon spectroheliograph. The active region NOAA9087 had a complex multipolar magnetic field configura-tion. New magnetic fluxes emerged during the evolution ofthis flare-productive active region. The high flare and surgeactivity was observed in the active region.According to Solar Geophysical Data (SGD) the3N/M6.4 class solar flare occurred on July 19, 2000 at06:37 UT, peaked at 07:23 UT and lasted 2.5 hours. Twobright kernels appeared near large positive-polarity sunspotat the beginning of the flare. In a few minutes bright kernelsoccurred in the center of the active region near polarity in-version line. Space solar observatory Yohkoh detected ahard X-ray (HXR) coronal source in the 13.9-22.7 keV and22.7-32.7 keV energy bands in this location.New kernels appeared in the southern and eastern partsof the active region at the boundaries of the chromosphericnetwork. They brightened sequentially clockwise, whichmay indicate a slipping reconnection. Magnetic reconnec-tion was observed in the main phase of the flare in the east-ern part of the active region. In the late flare phase arcadeof post-reconnection EUV loops connected the main flareribbon with the place of repeated reconnection. Additionalheating may be required for the explanation of the longflare decay phase.Flare ribbons of the circular shape were formed. Thecomplex magnetic configuration of the studied active re-gion and circular shape of the ribbons suggest that it had afan-spine magnetic topology with null points. Possibly,flare ribbons are the locations of intersections of the fanquasi-separatrix layer with the chromosphere. They ap-peared as a result of heating or particle beam moving alonga quasi-separatrix layer from a source in the corona.

Extrapolation of Three-dimensional Magnetic Field Structure in Flare-productive Active Regions with Different Initial Conditions

Abstract Nonlinear force-free field (NLFFF) modeling has been extensively used as a tool to infer three-dimensional (3D) magnetic field structure. In this study, the dependency of the NLFFF calculation with respect to the initial guess of the 3D magnetic field is investigated. While major parts of the previous studies used the potential field as the initial guess in NLFFF modeling, we adopt linear force-free fields with different constant force-free alpha as the initial guesses. This method enables us to investigate the uniqueness of the magnetic field obtained by the NLFFF extrapolation with respect to the initial guess. The dependence of the initial conditions on NLFFF extrapolation is smaller in the strong magnetic field region. Therefore, the magnetic field at lower heights (<10 Mm) tends to be less affected by the initial conditions (correlation coefficient C > 0.9 with different initial conditions); although, the Lorentz force is concentrated at lower heights.

Do the solar flares originating from an individual active region follow a random process or a memory-dependent correlation?

ABSTRACT We investigate the waiting time statistics of solar flares both in a flare-productive active region (AR 12673) of the solar cycle 24 and in a three-dimensional magnetohydrodynamic (MHD) simulated AR. The statistical models of a discrete random process and a continuous memory-dependent process are applied to interpret the waiting time distributions (WTDs) of solar flares. Our results indicate that the occurrence of a solar flare in an individual AR maintains a certain amount of memory, and probably arises from MHD turbulence rather than from intermittent avalanches in a self-organized criticality system. It differs from the occurrence of ‘super flares’ when treating the star/Sun as a single non-linear system.

Electric Current Neutralization in Solar Active Regions and Its Relation to Eruptive Activity

Abstract It is well established that magnetic free energy associated with electric currents powers solar flares and coronal mass ejections (CMEs) from solar active regions (ARs). However, the conditions that determine whether an AR will produce an eruption are not well understood. Previous work suggests that the degree to which the driving electric currents, or the sum of all currents within a single magnetic polarity, are neutralized may serve as a good proxy for assessing the ability of ARs to produce eruptions. Here, we investigate the relationship between current neutralization and flare/CME production using a sample of 15 flare-active and 15 flare-quiet ARs. All flare-quiet and four flare-active ARs are also CME-quiet. We additionally test the relation of current neutralization to the degree of shear along polarity inversion lines (PILs) in an AR. We find that flare-productive ARs are more likely to exhibit non-neutralized currents, specifically those that also produce a CME. We find that flare/CME-active ARs also exhibit higher degrees of PIL shear than flare/CME-quiet ARs. We additionally observe that currents become more neutralized during magnetic flux emergence in flare-quiet ARs. Our investigation suggests that current neutralization in ARs is indicative of their eruptive potential.

Comparative Study of Data-driven Solar Coronal Field Models Using a Flux Emergence Simulation as a Ground-truth Data Set

Abstract For a better understanding of the magnetic field in the solar corona and dynamic activities such as flares and coronal mass ejections, it is crucial to measure the time-evolving coronal field and accurately estimate the magnetic energy. Recently, a new modeling technique called the data-driven coronal field model, in which the time evolution of magnetic field is driven by a sequence of photospheric magnetic and velocity field maps, has been developed and revealed the dynamics of flare-productive active regions. Here we report on the first qualitative and quantitative assessment of different data-driven models using a magnetic flux emergence simulation as a ground-truth (GT) data set. We compare the GT field with those reconstructed from the GT photospheric field by four data-driven algorithms. It is found that, at minimum, the flux rope structure is reproduced in all coronal field models. Quantitatively, however, the results show a certain degree of model dependence. In most cases, the magnetic energies and relative magnetic helicity are comparable to or at most twice of the GT values. The reproduced flux ropes have a sigmoidal shape (consistent with GT) of various sizes, a vertically standing magnetic torus, or a packed structure. The observed discrepancies can be attributed to the highly non-force-free input photospheric field, from which the coronal field is reconstructed, and to the modeling constraints such as the treatment of background atmosphere, the bottom boundary setting, and the spatial resolution.

Trigger mechanisms of the major solar flares

AbstractSolar flares, suddenly releasing a large amount of magnetic energy, are one of the most energetic phenomena on the Sun. For the major flares (M- and X-class flares), there exist strong-gradient polarity-inversion lines in the pre-flare photospheric magnetograms. Some parameters (e.g., electric current, shear angle, free energy) are used to measure the magnetic non-potentiality of active regions, and the kernels of major flares coincide with the highly non-potential regions. Magnetic flux emergence and cancellation, shearing motion, and sunspot rotation observed in the photosphere are deemed to play an important role in the energy buildup and flare trigger. Solar active region 12673 produced many major flares, among which the X9.3 flare is the largest one in solar cycle 24. According to the newly proposed block-induced eruption model, the block-induced complex structures built the flare-productive active region and the X9.3 flare was triggered by an erupting filament due to the kink instability.

Detecting the solar new magnetic flux regions on the base of vector magnetograms

To understand better the origin of CME and other non-stationary processes, the detailed information about emerging flux regions must be known. The advanced method of mapping emerging magnetic flux regions through the multifractal segmentation of vector photospheric magnetograms, is created. It is free from influence of effects of projection. Maps of the vertical component of the field Hz and of the two transversal components Hx, Hy are processed separately and the computed segmented images are summarized. As a result, the detailed picture of distribution of new magnetic fluxes at the current time, is obtained. The SOT Hinode magnetograms for 2006–2015 were used. Observations of the flare-productive active regions NOAA 11158 and 11520 were processed. Hills of a new field in case of their birth have the considerable elongation which is possibly related to their rope-like geometry. In the centers of flare activity, in the vicinity of polarity inversion lines, exits of new magnetic flux alternate with processes of “magnetic cancellation”.

Observations of white-light flares in NOAA active region 11515: high occurrence rate and relationship with magnetic transients

Aims. There are two goals in this study. One is to investigate how frequently white-light flares (WLFs) occur in a flare-productive active region (NOAA active region 11515). The other is to investigate the relationship between WLFs and magnetic transients (MTs). Methods. We used the high-cadence (45 s) full-disk continuum filtergrams and line-of-sight magnetograms taken by the Helioseismic and Magnetic Imager (HMI) on board the Solar Dynamics Observatory (SDO) to identify WLFs and MTs, respectively. Images taken by the Atmospheric Imaging Assembly (AIA) on board SDO were also used to show the flare morphology in the upper atmosphere. Results. We found at least 20 WLFs out of a total of 70 flares above C class (28.6%) in NOAA active region 11515 during its passage across the solar disk (E45°–W45°). Each of these WLFs occurred in a small region, with a short duration of about 5 min. The enhancement of the white-light continuum intensity is usually small, with an average enhancement of 8.1%. The 20 WLFs we observed were found along an unusual configuration of the magnetic field that was characterized by a narrow ribbon of negative field. Furthermore, the WLFs were found to be accompanied by MTs, with radical changes in magnetic field strength (or even a sign reversal) observed during the flare. In contrast, there is no obvious signature of MTs in the 50 flares without white-light enhancements. Conclusions. Our results suggest that WLFs occur much more frequently than previously thought, with most WLFs being fairly weak enhancements. This may explain why WLFs are reported rarely. Our observations also suggest that MTs and WLFs are closely related and appear cospatial and cotemporal, when considering HMI data. A greater enhancement of WL emission is often accompanied by a greater change in the line-of-sight component of the unsigned magnetic field. Considering the close relationship between MTs and WLFs, many previously reported flares with MTs may be WLFs.