Flake Technology Research Articles

Searching for the earliest archaeological record: insights from chimpanzee material landscapes.

The origin of tool use is a central question in human evolutionary studies. Plio-Pleistocene core and flake technologies represent the earliest evidence of tool use in the human lineage. Some suggest this form of tool use is probably pre-dated by a phase of percussive tool use. However, there is currently no evidence for such a record. The archaeological signature of solely percussive behaviours is not as well understood as that associated with cores and flakes. The durable nature of primate percussive stone tools and their by-products provide an opportunity to investigate what such a record looks like. Here, we present a landscape-scale study of the chimpanzee (Pan troglodytes verus) material culture from the Djouroutou Chimpanzee Project, Taï Forest, Cote d'Ivoire. This study explores the interplay between behavioural and environmental factors in shaping the stone record of nut cracking. Through a survey of nut-cracking sites, the available nut species, and raw materials, we show how resource availability influences the resulting material signature of nut cracking. These results also reveal the diversity of material signatures associated with a purely percussive material record. We gain insight into the range of signatures that may be associated with a pre-core and flake archaeological record, providing new expectations for an earlier record of tool use.

Sitwe 23, a Complex ESA/MSA Locality in the Northern Luangwa Valley, Zambia

This paper describes the lithic aggregates from Sitwe 23 (SW23), a Stone Age locality in a previously unstudied region of the northern Luangwa Valley, Zambia. This area yielded two surface lithic scatters containing abundant artifacts derived from Pleistocene sediments on uplifted terrain and exposed by recent erosion on two adjacent terraces. The scatters are time-averaged palimpsests formed by deflation, but most of the lithics lack evidence of significant fluvial transport or post-depositional damage, indicating minimal horizontal displacement. Typological and attribute analyses of samples from both spurs reveal predominantly simple and expedient core and flake technologies, as well as sophisticated biface manufacture and Levallois technique producing flakes and points that are differentially distributed between the terraces. The artifacts identified in this analysis include types conventionally considered diagnostic of the Acheulean, Sangoan, and Middle Stone Age, suggesting that the collections may document one or more temporal windows during the Chibanian age (770–126 ka). Whether artifacts in these samples were originally deposited sequentially or concurrently is not yet known and alternative hypotheses are presented and discussed. The collections are compared to sites in Zambia and the northern Lake Malawi basin and found to be similar technologically but typologically different. Given the paucity of previously known Ston Age archaeological sites in the region, our work now demonstrates that northern Luangwa has significant archaeological potential and deserves further study.

Optically stimulated luminescence dating of Paleolithic sites reveals population shifts in North China during the last glacial period

The Greater Khingan and Yanshan mountain ranges in northern China not only constitute a significant physical obstacle to the northward movement of monsoon circulation, but also represent a natural barrier for human migration and cultural interactions between in-migrating Paleolithic populations and those indigenous to East Asia during the Late Pleistocene. We dated two Paleolithic sites, Yangzhuangxishan and Taiziling, located in the southern piedmont of the Yanshan Mountains with artifacts typified by simple core and flake technology associated with foraging populations, to ∼39–29 ka and ∼ 52–47 ka respectively, using the optically stimulated luminescence dating method. Our results indicate that northern China as far south as the Yanshan Mountains was occupied mainly by autochthonous East Asian Paleolithic populations using a core and flake lithic technology, although during this period Initial Upper Paleolithic (IUP) modern humans and Mousterian populations dispersed into East Asia. By synthesizing and integrating the ages of Northeast Asian Paleolithic sequences during the last glacial period (ca. 70–10 ka), we analyzed spatio-temporal variations in Late Pleistocene human populations during relatively cold stadial events (MIS 4 & 2) and warmer interstadials (e.g., MIS 3), revealing an “ebb and flow” pattern for migrations of Western IUP/Mousterian populations and indigenous core and flake technology populations in East Asia corresponding to the advance and retreat of the East Asian monsoon regime. The subsequent extremely cold climate phase engendered a major population shift during the Last Glacial Maximum (ca. 26.5–19 ka) which drove the reduction of both these Paleolithic populations, but afterward facilitated the emergence and rapid dispersal of microlithic technologies in East Asia. The peoples associated with microlithic technologies achieved their maximum geographical extent after the Bølling-Allerød Late Glacial interstadial event (ca. 14.7–12.9 ka) and then gradually decreased, perhaps due to the development of agriculture after ∼13 ka with concomitant increasing settlement stability.

Modeling Oldowan tool transport from a primate perspective

Living nonhuman primates have long served as a referential framework for understanding various aspects of hominin biological and cultural evolution. Comparing the cognitive, social, and ecological contexts of nonhuman primate and hominin tool use has allowed researchers to identify key adaptations relevant to the evolution of hominin behavior. Although the Oldowan is often considered to be a major evolutionary milestone, it has been argued that the Oldowan is rather an extension of behaviors already present in the ape lineage. This is based on the fact that while apes move tools through repeated, unplanned, short-distance transport bouts, they produce material patterning often associated with long-distance transport, planning, and foresight in the Oldowan. Nevertheless, remain fundamental differences in how Oldowan core and flake technology and nonhuman primate tools are used. The goal of the Oldowan hominins is to produce sharp-edged flakes, whereas nonhuman primates use stone tools primarily as percussors. Here, we present an agent-based model that investigates the explanatory power of the ape tool transport model in light of these differences. The model simulates the formation of the Oldowan record under the conditions of an accumulated short-distance transport pattern, as seen in extant chimpanzees. Our results show that while ape tool transport can account for some of the variation observed in the archaeological record, factors related to use-life duration severely limit how far an Oldowan core can be moved through repeated short-distance transport bouts. Thus, the ape tool transport has limitations in its ability to explain patterns in the Oldowan. These results provide a basis for discussing adaptive processes that would have facilitated the development of the Oldowan.

Skill and Core Uniformity: An Experiment with Oldowan-like Flaking Systems

ABSTRACT The Oldowan is the archaeological record’s oldest consistent evidence of hominin technical behavior. First appearing ∼2.6 Ma in East Africa, the Oldowan is characterized by simple core and flake technology using direct hard hammer percussion. Archaeologists debate whether Oldowan assemblages are uniform and what role hominin cultural abilities played in generating these assemblages. To improve existing methods for studying Oldowan technical uniformity, we conducted experiments involving 23 novices and one expert knapper. Subjects made simple stone tools under two different instructional conditions (observation-only and direct active instruction) over two hours. We used the resulting cores to track flaking efficiency, reduction intensity, and knapping errors. We find significant differences in the expert and novice core uniformity. Direct active teaching increased core flaking efficiency and reduced knapping errors. Comparisons between our experimental results and an Oldowan sample from Gona, Ethiopia, show core variability patterns that match our expert and actively taught novices.

After the blades: The late MIS3 flake-based technology at Shuidonggou Locality 2, North China.

Contrasting with the predominance of blade-based assemblages in the Eurasian Upper Paleolithic, the large-scale persistence of a core-and-flake technology remains one of the defining features of Late Pleistocene lithic technology in East Asia. In North China, Shuidonggou is an exceptional site where both technologies are documented, therefore, it is an important archaeological sequence to understand regional technological evolution during the Marine Isotopic Stage 3. Blade technology first occurred at Shuidonggou Locality 1 and 2 around 41 ka cal BP while core-and-flake assemblages were widespread in North China. However, systematic technological studies on assemblages postdating 34 ka cal BP have not been conducted to examine whether the blade technology appeared and disappeared over a short yet abrupt episode, or persists and integrates into other forms in the region. Here, we conducted qualitative and quantitative analyses to reconstruct lithic productions on the assemblages at Shuidonggou Locality 2, dated after 34 ka cal BP. Our results show that there is a total absence of laminar elements in stone artifacts dated to 34–28 ka cal BP at Shuidonggou. Instead, we observe a dominance of an expedient production of flakes in the younger assemblages, illustrating a rapid return to flake-based technology after a relatively brief episode of stone blade production. Combining archaeological, environmental, and genetic evidence, we suggest that this technological ‘reversal’ from blades back to core and flake technology reflect population dynamics and adaptive strategies at an ecological interface between East Asian winter and summer monsoon.

A primate model for the origin of flake technology

When and how human ancestors first used tools remains unknown, despite intense research into the origins of technology. It has been hypothesized that the evolutionary roots of stone flake technology has its origin in percussive behavior. Before intentional stone flaking, hominins potentially engaged in various percussive behaviors resulting in accidental flake detachments. We refer to this scenario as the ‘by-product hypothesis.’ In this scenario, repeated detachments of sharp stone fragments eventually resulted in intentional flake production. Here, we tested the circumstances of accidental flake production as a by-product of percussive foraging in wild capuchin monkeys (Sapajus libidinosus) from Brazil, the only nonhuman primate known to habitually produce sharp-edged flakes through a percussive behavior. We conducted field experiments where we tested the potential for accidental flake production during nut cracking. We provided three different types of stone with varied material properties as anvils to assess the circumstances in which accidental production of sharp-edged flakes occurs during nut cracking. A further freehand knapping experiment, with the raw material that exhibited accidental flake detachments, allows a direct comparison of flakes that have been intentionally produced by an experienced knapper and flakes produced during nut cracking by capuchin monkeys. Our results show that raw material quality and morphology significantly affect the rate of sharp-edged flake production as well as the resulting lithic signature of this behavior. In addition, accidental flakes produced during capuchin nut cracking on highly isotropic raw material are similar in many respects to intentionally produced flakes by a human knapper. Our field experiments highlight the fact that nut-cracking behavior can lead to the unintentional production of substantial quantities of sharp-edged flakes and therefore supports the ‘by-product hypothesis’ as a potential mechanism for the emergence of hominin flake technology.

Optimization of temperate extrusion-assisted flaking process conditions for the production of ricebean (Vigna umbellata) flakes

The temperate extrusion-assisted flaking process for the production of ricebean flakes has been optimized by using the response surface methodology. The developed flaking techniques could overcome the non-uniform product quality, loss of thermal sensitive nutrients, and prepare multigrain flakes. The process parameters studied were moisture content (MC: 20–30%), barrel temperature (BT: 40–60 °C), and twin-screw speed (TSS: 340–360 rpm). The quality of ricebean flakes was evaluated in terms of bulk density reduction percentage (BDRP), expansion percentage (EP), flakiness factor, water absorption index (WAI), water solubility index (WSI), degree of gelatinization (DG), and overall acceptability (OAA). The best quality flakes were obtained with optimized conditions of 25% MC of flour, 55 °C BT, and 345 rpm TSS. The quality characteristics of the optimized flakes were as follows- BDRP: 27.11 ± 0.72%, EP: 24.85 ± 0.45%, FF: 1.13 ± 0.04, WAI: 3.59 ± 0.15 g/g, WSI: 27.61 ± 0.22%, DG: 83 ± 0.35%, OAA: 8.5 ± 0.1. Industrial relevanceConventional flaking technology is a simple process that can be easily scaled up by any skilled individual, but it frequently has limitations such as non-uniform quality; loss of thermo-sensitive nutrients, process efficiency, and so on. The process reported in this present investigation is a temperate extrusion-assisted flaking process that provides better process control, product uniformity, incorporation of multiple flours, and a reduction in the loss of thermo-labile nutrients. The ricebean flakes thus prepared had superior quality. The data generated for flaking process optimization would be quite useful while upscaling the process to industrial-scale production. Industries can use this data for their process optimization and validation in the technology scale-up stage. The temperate extrusion-assisted flaking process can also be used to develop ready-to-eat breakfast cereals by blending bean flour with other cereals/ingredients and multigrain combinations.

Fit for purpose: investigating adaptations in late Pleistocene lithic technology to an island environment at Buang Merabak, New Ireland, Papua New Guinea

ABSTRACTThe occupation of Buang Merabak, a cave located on the island of New Ireland, by 42,000 years ago demonstrates that the colonisation of the Bismarck Archipelago occurred soon after that of Sahul. This provides the opportunity to consider the adaptation of small groups of people to a depauperate island environment. An analysis of a lithic assemblage from Buang Merabak was used to consider how technological organisation reflects changing patterns of site use and subsistence strategies from the late Pleistocene through to the early Holocene. A strategy of small simple flake technology was identified, which would have allowed site occupants flexibility in the face of fluctuating patterns of faunal resource use. During the late Pleistocene, a broad range of local lithic materials were used expediently. Gradual change occurred in the early Holocene to a smaller variety of materials with dominant use of local chert flakes and conservation of specific volcanic materials.

Le Paléolithique supérieur dans l’ouest de l’île principale du Japon

The Kinki, Chugoku and Shikoku regions are located in the western part of the Japanese mainland. This area lacks the Pleistocene volcanic soil except a part of Chugoku Mountains. For this reason, the chronology of the late Paleolithic stone industries has been mainly studied by technology and typology of the fields excavated. However, after the late 1980s, the analysis of volcanic ash that contained the Paleolithic sediments had remarkable development. As a result, the cultural layer between the distant Paleolithic sites is compared by several widespread volcanic ashes such as Aira-Tanzawa (in short AT) as key bed. In this paper, we offered chronological order of the late Paleolithic culture in these regions by comparing cultural layers on the basis of the widespread volcanic ashes, referring to typological analysis of industries. The Sétoüchi technique and Ku industry characterize the late Paleolithic culture in these regions. The Sétoüchi technique is the unique one to produce the Ku type backed knife blunting on only one side, using the particular side-blow flaking technology based on physical characteristics of sanukite stone which is a kind of andesite. However, a hypothesis named the “Sétoüchi concept” was proposed in 2001, and it has been used as a substitute of the “Sétoüchi technique” by a few Japanese researchers. So we point out the mistake of the Sétoüchi concept relying on the fact which yielded stratigraphically two different industries in the Suncheon site.

Palaeolithic archaeology of the Bytham River: human occupation of Britain during the early Middle Pleistocene and its European context

ABSTRACTThe Early and early Middle Pleistocene archaeological record in Britain from c. 900 to 500 ka marks a critical shift in human occupation of northwest Europe, from occasional pioneer populations with simple core and flake technology to more widespread occupation associated with the appearance of Acheulean technology. Key to understanding this record are the fluvial deposits of the extinct Bytham River in central East Anglia, where a series of Lower Palaeolithic sites lie on a 15 km stretch of the former river. In this paper we present the results of new fieldwork and a reanalysis of historical artefact collections of handaxes and scrapers to: 1) establish the chronostratigraphic context of the Bytham archaeological record; 2) examine variability in lithic artefact typology and technology through time; and 3) explore the implications for understanding variation in lithic technology in the European record. Six phases of occupation of Britain are identified from at least marine isotope stage (MIS) 21 to MIS 13, with the last three phases characterised by distinctive lithic technology. We argue that this relates to the discontinuous occupation of Britain, where each phase represents the arrival of new groups derived from different European populations with distinctive material culture.

Perkembangan Teknologi Artefak Serpih Batu Pada Paruh Awal Holosen di Leang Batti, Sulawesi Selatan

Penelitian yang intensif di gua-gua prasejarah Sulawesi Selatan telah menunjukkan kemampuan kognitif penghuni Sulawesi yang mungkin jarang dimiliki populasi lain di Wallacea. Pada paruh awal Holosen kemampuan yang diperlihatkan adalah memodifikasi alat serpih yang dikenal dengan tekno-kompleks Toalean. Namun demikian, gambaran perkembangan teknologi artefak batu pada masa antara sebelum hingga awal perkembangan tekno-kompleks Toalean masih jarang diteliti secara intensif. Situs Leang Batti adalah situs hunian yang dapat mengisi kekosongan informasi melalui studi teknologi artefak serpih. Artefak berjumlah 1376 buah diklasifikasi dan dianalisis pada serpih dengan mengamati dinamika morfometrik dan teknologi tipe alat antara Holosen Awal hingga Tengah. Hasil penelitian menunjukkan bahwa pada Holosen Awal, teknologi yang dominan adalah serpih yang digunakan sebagai alat secara langsung tanpa dimodifikasi. Pada fase Holosen Tengah, ukuran serpih mulai mengalami perubahan karena pengaruh Toalean dengan karakter teknologi serpih yang dimodifikasi mulai masuk dalam konsep dasar sipembuat alat, namun tidak terlalu kuat.

Another Look at Expedient Technologies, Sedentism, and the Bow and Arrow

The transition from the dart to the arrow, and the commensurate changes in lithic technology is poorly understood in the American Southwest. This transition has often been linked to shifts in sedentism and the increasing use of expedient flake tools. However, the relationship between the use of bifacial and core reduction strategies are conditioned by a variety of factors, and not primarily in response to the use of the bow-and-arrow, or simply sedentism. We, therefore, evaluate a series of potential factors which can be used to understand the variability exhibited in the use of biface and flake technologies.

A review of Denisovans

In 2010, geneticists reported the mitochondrial DNA and nuclear DNA sequences of a fragment of hominin phalanx found in Denisova cave, in the Altai Mountains in Russia, and the discovery of a new archaic human group which they named “Denisovans”. Subsequently, significant progress has been made in research on Denisovans. This paper reviews and summarizes recent achievements and advances in Denisovan studies, especially in chronology, archaeology, anthropology and genetics, over the past decade, with the aim of encouraging in-depth research in related fields in China. Comprehensive geochronological studies in Denisova cave suggest that Denisovans and Neanderthals may have occupied the cave during the interval of 287−55 ka (thousand years ago) and during 193−97 ka. Direct dating of hominin fossils, or of strata containing hominin fossils, indicates that Denisovans occupied the cave during 195−52 ka, while there is evidence of Neanderthals occupying the cave during 14.7−9.1 ka. These results reflect the long occupation history of Denisovans and Neanderthals in Denisova cave. In addition, the dating of the Xiahe mandible, from Baishiya karst cave (Xiahe County, Gansu Province, China) in the northeastern Tibetan Plateau, indicates that this is the first Denisovan fossil discovered outside Denisova cave, and suggests that Denisovans occupied the Tibetan Plateau at least at 160 ka, in the late Middle Pleistocene. This extends the spatial distribution of Denisovans from the Altai Mountains to the Tibetan Plateau and indicates that the Xiahe Denisovans may have been adapted to the extremely cold and hypoxic environment of the plateau. Lithic assemblages from Denisova cave include both Levallois and blade technologies produced by either Denisovans or Neanderthals, or both, who coexisted in the cave for a long time. However, preliminary analysis of lithic artifacts collected from Baishiya Karst cave indicates the dominance of simple core and flake technology. In consideration of long coexistence of two archaic humans in Denisova cave, and the archeological work in Baishiya Karst cave is still in its infancy stage, the cultural connotation of Denisovans needs further comprehensive study. Considering the long coexistence of the two archaic humans in Denisova cave, and that archeological work in Baishiya karst cave is still at a preliminary stage, the cultural connotations of the Denisovans require further comprehensive study. The fragments of Denisovan fossils found in Denisova cave provide limited evidence of the morphological characteristics of the phalanx and teeth, while the Xiahe mandible provides more extensive and important evidence of the morphological characteristics of the mandibles of Denisovans. The present study shows that the overall morphological characteristics of the phalanx are closer to those of modern humans than to Neanderthals, although the size of the molars is much greater than that those of Neanderthals and modern humans; in addition, the mandible has several features similar to those of archaic Homo sapiens in East Asia. However, due to the limited fossil evidence, the morphological differences between Denisovans and other archaic humans remain to be comprehensively documented. In addition, in contrast to the Neanderthals’ wide genetic contribution to modern humans, Denisovans only genetically contributed to modern populations in Oceania, East Asia, South Asia and America, and they exhibit a gene flow from superarchaic humans. In addition, multiple deeply differentiated branches may exist within the Denisovan population. These findings imply that Denisovans may have been more widely distributed in Asia than was previously thought and that they possess a more complex evolutionary history. At present, only one high-coverage Denisovan genome has been discovered in Denisova cave and no ancient DNA is preserved in the Xiahe mandible, which limits our understanding of other Denisovan branches. Although we still know little about Denisovans, we anticipate that future in-depth archaeological studies at Baishiya karst cave will provide additional important information on the physical morphology of Denisovans, their genetic characteristics and behavioral culture, and will elucidate the adaptation mechanism of Denisovans to high-altitude environments. In addition, we expect that an increasing number of new discoveries and multidisciplinary endeavors will shed additional light on the Denisovans and thus contribute to the study of human evolution in East Asia.

Raw material procurement as a crucial factor determining knapping technology in the Katta Sai complex of Middle Palaeolithic sites in the western Tian Shan piedmonts of Uzbekistan

This paper presents the results of the study of raw material procurement on two late Middle Paleolithic sites, Katta Sai 1 and Katta Sai 2, located in the western Tian Shan piedmont. The previous studies allowed to identify an unknown Levallois variant of human cultural adaptation in the regional Middle Paleolithic. Predetermined flake technology focused on obtaining the thin triangular flakes or even blades. At the same time, the river pebbles of effusive rocks brought from the nearby river gorges were used for knapping. The paper analyses the sources of the raw material collected, and its knapping quality together with the technological features indicating how the manufacturing scheme was adjusted to the quality of used raw material.

Relationship between size and precision of flake technology in the Middle Paleolithic. An experimental study

Microlithization in the Middle Paleolithic is an important aspect to consider as a means to understand Neanderthal technology, economic organization and cognitive and psychomotor capacities. Small tool production has been related to the economy of high-quality raw materials or to the planned production of tools for precision tasks. The objective of this investigation is to evaluate if there are differences in precision depending on the size of the flake used. To achieve this, we carried out an experimental test in a group of 50 individuals to measure the relationship between the size of the tool and the precision achieved. The experiment consisted of tracing different lines using standard Levallois (>4 cm) and micro-Levallois (<3 cm) flakes. Then, the error of each tracing was measured using GIS software, to analyze statistically the relationship between variables. The results show that there are no significant differences in precision between standard flakes and small flakes. Therefore, we reject the hypothesis that the production of small flakes was driven by a specific need for precision tools, and accordingly, we propose alternative scenarios to explain the relevance of their production in certain assemblages.

Magnetostratigraphic and archaeological records at the Early Pleistocene site complex of Madigou (Nihewan Basin): Implications for human adaptations in North China

The Nihewan Basin in North China contains the densest concentration of early Pleistocene Paleolithic sites outside Africa. This paper introduces a new archaeological site complex at Madigou (MDG) that was systematically excavated from 2011 to 2014 in the northeastern part of the Nihewan Basin. The site contains fossils and well-preserved stone artefacts in fluvio-lacustrine sediments. Our magnetostratigraphic results situate the MDG sedimentary sequence in the early Brunhes normal chron and the late Matuyama reverse chron, including the Jaramillo normal subchron. The MDG artifact layers are positioned within the pre-Jaramillo Matuyama chron, with an estimated age of ca. 1.2 Ma, close to the onset of Mid-Pleistocene climate transition. The MDG core and flake technology includes bipolar flaking of siliceous dolomite cobbles, and freehand flaking of chert and brecciated chert block fragments. Mammalian fauna and pollen compositions indicate that the MDG hominins lived in an open habitat varying from lightly-wooded grassland to an ecosystem dominated by sparse steppe near the shore of the Nihewan paleolake. Our combined results in the fields of archaeology, paleontology, palynology and magnetochronology suggest that innovations in technological behavior may correlate with adaptations to high environmental variability during the start of Mid-Pleistocene climate transition.

Early Marine Isotope Stage 3 human occupation of the Shandong Peninsula, coastal North China

ABSTRACTArcheological studies of coastal sites have yielded a large body of information regarding the dispersal of modern humans from Africa and the coastal adaptations of various hominin groups. Coastal areas have been attractive to humans since at least the late Middle Pleistocene, according to research conducted in Africa and the circum‐Mediterranean region. However, little information concerning Paleolithic occupations has come to light in coastal areas of China. Here, we report on the chronology, archeology and paleoenvironmental reconstruction of the Pleistocene Dazhushan site on the east coast of the Shandong Peninsula in North China. Evidence indicates that prehistoric humans employing a flake technology occupied the current coastal area of the peninsula by at least early Marine Isotope Stage 3 (MIS 3; c. 57–29 ka) when the region was an inland area dominated by a mixed broadleaved forest and grassland environment occupied by terrestrial herbivores. Based on archeological evidence brought to light along the current Chinese coastline, correlated with sea level changes that have occurred since MIS 3, we suggest that future studies of coastal migrations and adaptations in eastern China will be considerably enhanced by a deeper understanding of the geomorphological evolution of those coastal regions.

The contribution of use -wear for stone tool identification at the Upper Paleolithic site Shuidonggou Locality 2, North China

In North China, the archaeology of the Late Pleistocene is characterized by the persistence of flake-based lithic assemblages. Little is known about the use of stone tools and the reasons behind the success of a relatively simple core and flake technology are unclear. Most lithic studies in the region are traditionally based on a typological categorization of assemblages with the frequencies of cores and tool-types playing a significant role in the characterization of the site (e.g. residential vs. more logistical occupation). Hence, to discriminate stone tool from byproduct is essential to better understand variables such as site function or mobility but it remains particularly challenging in poorly standardized lithic assemblages. Here we present preliminary results of a study on the newly excavated material from cultural layer 2 and 3 at Shuidonggou Locality 2 (32.6–29.9 ka cal BP). We analyze use-wears on a sample of retouched and unretouched blanks using the low magnification technique and we compared our observations with several experimental referential. Our results can be summarized in two main points. First, we observe a similar frequency of use-wear on retouched tools and unretouched blanks. Second, differences in tool types do not match our basic identification of the working motions. Our results suggest that in Shuidonggou Locality 2, using retouch as a predictor for tool use is problematic (especially with regards to tool functions). Given that tool frequencies and tool diversity are data used to model site function, tool curation and hunter-gatherer mobility, we suggest that this issue should be further investigated in the context of ‘core and flakes’ assemblage.

Stone implement from the early Neolithic layers in Rakushechny Yar (on the example of the researches of 2016-2017)

The article shows the analysis of the collection of the stone artifacts obtained as a result of excavations of the early Neolithic layers of the site Rakushechny Yar. The collection of the stone tools makes it possible to get an idea about the flaking technology, oriented to obtaining blades. However, the absence of the products of debitage on the site indicates that flaking and tool production were realized outside the site. For secondary modification inhabitants of the site used such techniques as retouching and polishing. The tools assemblage was represented mainly by points that were used as drills, end-scrapers and polished axes, which indicates the specific economic activities of the inhabitants of the site, associated with the woodworking. The stone implement of the site has analogies not only in the Neolithic sites of the region, but also in the Neolithic stone implements of the sites of the Lower Volga and Northern Caspian Regions. Taking into account that the investigated part of the site was a coastal zone at one time, as well as the presence of a large number of fish bones in the lower layers, it can be assumed that the use of the above categories of tools was somehow connected with fishing. This assumption can be confirmed by microwear analysis of the stone tools.