FIS World Cup Research Articles

Identification of the optimal racing line for top male athletes on a segment of a World Cup downhill alpine ski slope using tracking data

Using tracking data we can identify the optimal racing line for top male athletes on the famous S-curved segment (Brueggli-S) of the downhill FIS world cup track “Lauberhorn” in Switzerland. For this, we have measured and analysed training runs, measured on a single day, of 10 world class athletes. Based on curvatures derived from the tracking data, a large variation in racing lines adopted by the athletes was observed. Each of the detected racing lines share a similar pattern: The maximum curvature in the first curve is strongly correlated with the minimum curvature of the second curve. We have found that, for the athletes under investigation, the overall best racing line is characterized by a defined ratio of the maximum curvature of the first to the second curve. We claim that the observed correlation, as well as the optimal ratio of curvatures, is universal for a class of athletes with nearly identical performance levels. If and how this ratio varies for different classes of athletes (i.e. U10, U12 or U16 athletes) is an as yet unanswered question and remains open to further investigation.

Coefficient of Difficulty in Running a Sports Course in Alpine Skiing

In alpine ski disciplines, it is common for competitors to record incomplete runs. In some instances, up to 40% of competitors have failed to complete a course. Possible reasons include incorrect preparation of skiers (lack of adequate motor preparation) and poor tactical approaches. However, there are also some errors in the setting of gates on a course. The aim of this paper is to determine the objective difficulty coefficient of alpine skiing competition courses, based on course geometry and the kinematic parameters of the run. This research monitored alpine skiers during the FIS World Cup. All four alpine skiing disciplines (i.e., downhill, super giant, giant slalom, and slalom) were considered. The average value of the coefficient of difficulty (W.tr) was the highest for the downhill style runs and amounted to 1.20, the super giant and the giant had comparable values of 1.13–1.14, and for the slalom, the W.tr value was the lowest at 0.97. Based on the determined coefficients of route difficulty, it is possible to derive a quantifiable metric to estimate the degree of risk associated with different sections of a course.

How Does the Starting Order in the First and Second Run Affect the Final Rank in the FIS World Cup Giant Slalom?

The aim of this study was to determine the impact of runs 1 and 2 on overall rank in Giant Slalom. Data from 15 seasons (2005/2006–2019/2020) including and unique starts for women (n = 2,294) and men (n = 2,328) were analyzed. Skiers were grouped based on final ranks 1–3 (G3), 4–10 (G10), and 11–20 (G20) and separately analyzed for women and men. A Wilcoxon-signed rank test was used for comparisons between runs 1 and 2, while a multi-nominal logistic regression was used to identify odds ratios (OR) associated with group rank. Women had similar run times for runs 1 and 2 (p = 0.734), while men had faster times on run 2 (p < 0.001). The strongest association to G3 was during run 1 for run time (men: OR 1.06–1.12; women: OR 1.06–1.11, all p < 0.01) and gate-to-gate times (men: OR 33–475; women: OR 81–2,301, all p < 0.001). Overall, this study demonstrates the importance of a fast first run for improving the final ranking group and the need to increase the tempo going from the first to the second run for men.

Injuries in elite women’s ski jumping: a cohort study following three International Ski Federation (FIS) World Cup seasons from 2017–2018 to 2019–2020

ObjectivesTo define incidence and injury patterns of International Ski Federation (FIS) World Cup (WC) women ski jumpers over three seasons.MethodsSki jump athletes competing in the Women’s FIS WC were recruited...

Nationalistic bias in sport performance evaluations: An example from the ski jumping world cup

Illegitimate biases of non-independent judges represent a threat to the legitimacy of international sport competitions. Judges’ nationalities represent one source of bias, as they consciously or subconsciously may prefer athletes from their own nation. Such biases may affect the outcomes of competitions. The literature offers no complete consensus on the magnitude, origin and stability of such biases. In this paper, we shed light on these problems, using international ski jumping as an example. We draw on data from the FIS World Cup competitions in the 2006–2008 and 2015–2016 seasons and estimate a series of fixed-effects models to test hypotheses on nationalistic biases. Our results reaffirm suspicions of nationalistic bias in major ski jumping competitions, but also show their magnitude is too little to be of major relevance to competition outcomes. The biases vary between nations, but do not change markedly over the study period. Abbreviation: FIS: Federation International de Ski.

Injuries in elite women’s ski jumping: surveillance through the 2017–18 FIS World Cup season

ObjectivesTo describe the incidence, type, aetiology and severity of injuries sustained by the International Ski Federation World Cup level female ski jumpers during the 2017–18 season.DesignProspective cohort study.MethodsSixty-seven female ski...

Reconstruction of head impacts in FIS World Cup alpine skiing

IntroductionPrior to the 2013/2014 season, the International Ski Federation (FIS) increased the helmet testing speed from 5.4 to 6.8 m/s for alpine downhill, super-G and giant slalom. Whether this increased...

Head injury mechanisms in FIS World Cup alpine and freestyle skiers and snowboarders

IntroductionHead injuries represent a concern in skiing and snowboarding, with traumatic brain injuries being the most common cause of death.AimTo describe the mechanisms of head and face injuries among World...

Head impact velocities in FIS World Cup snowboarders and freestyle skiers: Do real-life impacts exceed helmet testing standards?

IntroductionPrior to the 2013–2014 season, the International Ski Federation (FIS) increased the helmet testing speed from a minimum requirement of 5.4 to 6.8 m/s for alpine downhill, super-G and giant...

『'97クロスカントリー・W杯』『'97ノルディック複合・W杯(距離)』のNTSC/HDTV一体化制作について

『'97クロスカントリー・W杯』『'97ノルディック複合・W杯(距離)』のNTSC/HDTV一体化制作について

Injury rate and injury patterns in FIS World Cup Alpine skiing (2006–2015): have the new ski regulations made an impact?

BackgroundNew regulations for ski equipment were implemented prior to the 2012/2013 season in the International Ski Federation (FIS) Alpine World Cup (WC).ObjectiveTo investigate the effect of the new ski regulations...

Head injuries among FIS World Cup alpine and freestyle skiers and snowboarders: a 7-year cohort study

BackgroundTraumatic brain injury is the leading cause of death for skiers and snowboarders. Fatal head injuries have also occurred at the International Ski Federation (FIS) World Cup (WC) level. We...

Kinematic Chains in Ski Jumping In-run Posture

The concept of kinematic chains has been systematically applied to biological systems since the 1950s. The course of a ski jump can be characterized as a change between closed and open kinematic chains. The purpose of this study was to determine a relationship between adjacent segments within the ski jumper’s body’s kinematic chain during the in-run phase of the ski jump. The in-run positions of 267 elite male ski jumpers who participated in the FIS World Cup events in Innsbruck, Austria, between 1992 and 2001 were analyzed (656 jumps). Two-dimensional (2-D) kinematic data were collected from the bodies of the subjects. Relationships between adjacent segments of the kinematic chain in the ski jumper’s body at the in-run position are greater nearer the chain’s ground contact. The coefficient of determination between the ankle and knee joint angles is 0.67. Changes in the segments’ positions in the kinematic chain of the ski jumper’s body are stable during longitudinal assessment. Changes in shank and thigh positions, in the sense of increase or decrease, are the same.

Injury incidence in qualification runs versus final runs in FIS World Cup snowboard cross and ski cross

BackgroundIn the International Ski Federation (FIS), World Cup (WC) snowboard cross (SBX) and ski cross (SX), the injury incidence in individual qualification runs versus final runs in heats of four...

A Time Trend Study of Significantly Elevated Perfluorocarboxylate Levels in Humans after Using Fluorinated Ski Wax

A time trend study focusing on ski waxing technicians' exposure to perfluorinated chemicals (PFCs) from fluorinated wax fumes was performed in 2007/2008. Levels of eight perfluorocarboxylates and three perfluorosulfonates were analyzed in monthly blood samples from eight technicians. Samples were collected before the ski season, i.e., preseason, then at four FIS World Cup competitions in cross country skiing, and finally during an unexposed 5-month postseason period. The perfluorinated carboxylates perfluoroheptanoic acid (PFHpA), perfluorooctanoic acid (PFOA), perfluorononanoic acid (PFNA), perfluorodecanoic acid (PFDA), and perfluoroundecanoic acid (PFUnDA) bioaccumulate, and continued exposure may contribute to elevated levels in ski technicians compared to the general population. The wax technicians' median blood level of PFOA is 112 ng/mL compared to 2.5 ng/mL in the general Swedish population. A significant correlation was found between number of working years and levels of perfluorocarboxylates. The PFOA levels in three technicians with "low" initial levels of PFOA (<10.0 ng/mL in preseason blood) increased by 254, 134, and 120%, whereas five technicians with "high" initial levels (>100 ng/mL in preseason sample) were at steady state. PFHxA is suggested to have a short half-life in humans relative the other perfluorocarboxylates. The levels of perfluorosulfonates were unaffected by the wax exposure.