Firearm Acquisition Research Articles

Association of State Firearm Laws With Firearm Ownership and Mortality

IntroductionFirearm injury is a leading cause of death among Americans. As the right to bear arms is protected by the Second Amendment, policy-makers must consider the impact of legislation on both firearm ownership and firearm harms. Current state of knowledge in firearm research majorly examines the impact of firearm legislation on firearm injuries and fatalities alone, and it relies on correlational analyses. The few studies that consider causal effects employ counterfactual-based inference. This study introduces information-theoretic tools to explore the role of firearm laws in mitigating firearm harms while maintaining citizens’ right to bear arms MethodsWe study monthly time series from January 2000 to October 2019 for the implementation of firearm laws from RAND's State Firearm Law Database, firearm deaths by intent from the Centers for Disease Control and Prevention databases, and firearm ownership from an econometric model. We employ transfer entropy, an information-theoretic method that relies on Granger causality, to infer relationships from time series. Specifically, we examine transfer entropy from firearm restrictiveness to deaths per firearm owner, firearm ownership, and firearm deaths, independently ResultsOn a national level, we uncover a negative association from firearm restrictiveness to deaths per firearm owner and a positive association from firearm restrictiveness to firearm ownership. On a regional level, we identify a negative association from firearm restrictiveness to deaths per firearm owner in the Northeast, a negative association from firearm restrictiveness to firearm ownership in the Midwest, and a negative association from firearm restrictiveness to firearm suicides in the South ConclusionsWe present an information-theoretic approach to study relationships in firearm research. Our method provides preliminary evidence for the role of restrictive legislation in promoting safe firearm ownership. We find that firearm acquisition considerably increases following the implementation of restrictive firearm laws and, simultaneously, firearm deaths decrease. These effects vary with respect to death by intent and the geographical region laws were implemented in.

Updated Estimate of the Number of Extreme Risk Protection Orders Needed to Prevent 1 Suicide

Extreme risk protection orders (ERPOs)-also known as red flag, risk warrant, and gun violence restraining orders-authorize law enforcement, family members, and sometimes others to petition a court to remove firearms from and prevent the acquisition of new firearms by a person judged to pose an immediate danger to themselves or others. Previous estimates suggest that 1 suicide is prevented for every 10 ERPOs issued, a number needed to treat that depends critically on the counterfactual estimate of the proportion of suicidal acts by ERPO respondents that would have involved firearms in the absence of ERPOs. To empirically inform updated estimates of the number of ERPOs needed to prevent 1 suicide. This cohort study used data from California for method-specific suicides by handgun ownership (October 18, 2004, to December 31, 2015). Handgun-owning suicide decedents in California were identified using individual-level registry data about lawful handgun ownership linked to cause-specific mortality for a cohort of more than 25 million adults. The study also used data from Connecticut for method-specific suicides among ERPO respondents who died by suicide, extracted from published data (October 1999 to June 2013). Data analysis was performed in December 2023. Handgun ownership. The primary outcomes were the number and distribution of suicidal acts by handgun owners in California, estimated using method-specific suicide mortality data and published case fatality ratios, and the counterfactual number and distribution of suicidal acts and deaths among ERPO respondents in Connecticut had no ERPOs been issued. A total of 1216 handgun owners (mean [SD] age, 50 [18] years; 1019 male [83.8%]) died by suicide during the study period. Among male handgun owners in California, 28% of suicidal acts involved firearms, 54% involved drug poisoning, 9% involved cutting or piercing, 3% involved hanging or suffocation, 2% involved poisoning with solids and/or liquids, and the remaining 4% involved other methods. Assuming this distribution approximates the counterfactual distribution among ERPO respondents in Connecticut in the absence of ERPOs, 1 suicide death was prevented for every 22 ERPOs issued. The estimates produced by this cohort study of California handgun owners suggest that ERPOs can play an important role in averting deaths among high-risk individuals.

Survey of United States neurosurgeons on firearm injury prevention.

Firearm-related injuries and deaths are an endemic problem in the US, posing a burden on the healthcare system with significant social and economic consequences. As front-line care providers for these patients, neurosurgeons are both knowledgeable about these injuries and credible messengers in the public discussion of ways to reduce firearm injuries. The purpose of this study was to explore US-based neurosurgeons' views and behaviors regarding firearms to understand and define a potential role for neurosurgical organizations in advocacy efforts to reduce firearm death and injuries. The authors conducted an anonymous survey of US neurosurgeons using the American Association of Neurological Surgeons (AANS) member database from April to June 2023. The 22-question survey included questions related to firearm ownership, personal views on firearms, and support for both general and policy-specific advocacy efforts to reduce firearm deaths and injuries. The survey response rate was 20.7%, with 1568 of the 7587 members invited completing the survey. The survey completion rate was 93.4%, with 1465 of the 1568 surveys completed and included in this analysis. The majority of respondents were male (raw: 81.7%; weighted 81.1%), White (raw: 69.7%; weighted 70.2%), and older than 50 years (raw: 56.2%; weighted: 54%). Most respondents reported treating patients with firearm injuries (raw: 83.3%; weighted: 82%), 85.5% (weighted: 85.1%) had used a firearm, and 42.4% (weighted: 41.5%) reported owning a firearm. Overall, 78.8% (weighted: 78.7%) of respondents felt that organized neurosurgery should participate in advocacy efforts. When examining individual policies, those that restrict the acquisition of firearms garnered the support of at least 65% of respondents, while nonrestrictive policies were supported by more than 75% of respondents. Free-text responses provided insight into both motivations for and objections to organizational advocacy. The majority of US-based neurosurgeons support involvement in advocacy efforts to reduce firearm deaths and injuries. Themes expressed by members both supporting and objecting to advocacy provide insight into approaches that could ensure broad support. Neurosurgical organizations such as the AANS and Congress of Neurological Surgeons may use the results of this survey to make informed decisions regarding involvement in advocacy efforts on behalf of their membership to lessen the burden of firearm injury in the US.

Loneliness and firearm acquisition among low-income U.S. veterans: Findings from the National Veteran Homeless and Other Poverty Experiences (NV-HOPE) study

RationaleThere are theoretical reasons to expect loneliness related to firearm purchasing. For instance, loneliness might amplify social isolation and feelings of insecurity, anxiety, perceived danger, and need for self-reliance. Purchasing a firearm might be seen as a way to bolster one's security and gain a sense of control when faced with potential threats, yet there is a lack of research assessing this possibility. ObjectiveThis study aimed to examine the relationship between loneliness and purchasing a firearm among a sample of low-income U.S. military veterans. MethodsData are from a national survey of 1,004 low-income U.S. veterans collected in December 2022 and January 2023. Firth logistic regression—a rare event logistic regression model to address small-sample bias stemming from rare outcomes through a penalized likelihood approach—was used to estimate the adjusted association between loneliness and purchasing a firearm in the past year. ResultsApproximately 5.4% reported the purchase of a new firearm in the past year, and respondents reported an average loneliness score of 1.82 (standard deviation = 1.96; range = 0–6). Results of Firth Logit regression analyses found that net of control variables for demographic, socioeconomic, and household characteristics, loneliness was positively associated with purchasing a firearm in the past year (OR = 1.167, 95% CI = 1.006, 1.352). ConclusionThe findings indicate that loneliness among U.S. military veterans is associated with firearm purchasing. Considering the risks posed by both loneliness and firearm ownership for veteran suicide, the findings suggest the need for greater focus and synergistic strategies to address loneliness and safe firearm practices among U.S. veterans.

Contributions of Biobehavioral Sciences to the Study and Prevention of Firearm Violence: Perceived Threat, Cognitive Control, and Firearm Culture

The study and prevention of firearm violence are clearly in the realm of psychology, yet the potential contributions of the biobehavioral sciences to the study of firearm violence are underexplored. Most biobehavioral research has identified individual-level vulnerabilities for violence more broadly, with less focus on how biological risk manifests in the context of firearm culture in particular. Reviewing the literature leads to two main insights: first, the nature of firearm acquisition in the United States (easy access, self-protection motives, and exaggerated perceptions of threat) can itself trigger biobehavioral processes (e.g., threat disruptions in cognitive control) representing a risk for firearm violence. Second, cutting-edge research using digital and biological phenotyping represents a potentially useful approach for tracking and forecasting the momentary risk of firearm violence among high-risk firearm carriers. Policy recommendations informed by the reviewed research can help improve prevention and intervention efforts.

Firearm acquisition patterns and characteristics of California mass and active shooters

PurposeTo examine the firearm acquisition histories of mass and active shooters from California. MethodsFirst, we identified 22 individuals with a record of authorized handgun purchase in California who perpetrated an attack between 1996 and 2018. Using incidence density sampling, mass and active shooters were matched to purchasers and compared using conditional logistic regressions. Second, we characterized the firearm transaction patterns of 55 mass and active shooters who perpetrated attacks between 1985 and 2018 and implemented a mixed model to identify factors associated with firearms acquired in close temporal proximity to the attack. ResultsCompared to legal handgun purchasers, shooters had more purchases of handguns in the year prior to the attack (OR = 5.58, 95% CI: 2.34, 13.33), greater odds of a history of purchase denials (OR = 23.43, 95% CI: 4.55, 120.59), and fewer years between the last recorded purchase and the end date (OR = 0.79, 95% CI: 0.68, 0.90). Among the broader set of mass and active shooters, mixed model results indicated that the firearms acquired close to the attack were more likely to be long guns, discharged during the attack, purchased out-of-state, and acquired by methods other than through a licensed dealer. ConclusionsFindings are suggestive of pre-attack planning.

Associations between deployment experiences, safety-related beliefs, and firearm ownership among women Veterans

IntroductionAmong women Veterans, firearms are the leading suicide means. This has prompted efforts to elucidate factors associated with women Veterans’ firearm ownership. This cross-sectional study examined if deployment experiences were associated with firearm ownership among women Veterans and if safety-related beliefs mediated these associations. Methods492 previously deployed post-9/11 women Veterans participated in a national survey that included the Deployment Risk and Resilience Inventory-2, subscales of the Posttraumatic Cognitions Inventory and Posttraumatic Maladaptive Beliefs Scale, and firearm ownership questions. Path analysis was used. ResultsPerceived threat during deployment was associated with firearm ownership, irrespective of safety-related beliefs. Indirect effects did not support that safety-related beliefs mediated relations between deployment experiences and firearm ownership. The other deployment experiences (sexual harassment, sexual assault, general harassment, combat experiences) were not indirectly associated with firearm ownership, nor were safety-related beliefs (negative cognitions about the world, threat of harm, beliefs about others’ reliability and trustworthiness) directly associated with firearm ownership. In an exploratory serial mediation analysis, perceived threat during deployment mediated the association between combat experiences and firearm ownership. In a sensitivity analysis examining firearm acquisition following military service, results were similar, except the indirect effect of combat experiences upon firearm acquisition through perceived threat was not significant. ConclusionPost-9/11 women Veterans’ firearm acquisition and ownership may relate to specific deployment experiences, such as perceived threat; however, longitudinal studies are needed to fully ascertain this. Efforts to address firearm access among post-9/11 women Veterans may benefit from assessing heightened sense of danger during deployment.

Features of weapons accounting at the enterprise

Introduction. Theoretical, legal and accounting problems in the field of weapons circulation in Ukraine reflect the needs of modern society. They require scientific conceptualization and a thorough study of theoretical, organizational and legal foundations. The purpose of the paper is to study the legal regime of ownership of weapons, acquisition, possession, disposal and use of weapons and ammunition by Ukrainian enterprises and to highlight accounting procedures that are directly related thereto. Results. The organizational and legal aspect of weapons accounting at the enterprise consists in properly formulating the rules for the use of weapons by the enterprise within the existing permit system in the domestic legal space. The conducted research of the legislation allows us to state that there are significant inaccuracies and questions related to the types of business entities that have the right to use weapons, as well as to the types of weapons that are allowed to this or that enterprise in view of its main activity, because there are a large number of permits, which regulate and limit the possibility of providing employees of the enterprise with weapons of a specific type. The paper focuses on the need for a thorough study of the legal field of the company’s activities in view of the possibility of using weapons by employees to perform their official duties and comply with licensing requirements and the permit system requirements introduced by the authorities of the Ministry of Internal Affairs of Ukraine. The paper considers the main aspects of documenting and accounting for the acquisition and use of firearms, pneumatic and melee weapons and ammunition by enterprises that have the right to do so according to the current legislation. Conclusion. Analyzing the Ukrainian legislation that regulates the circulation of weapons in Ukraine, it is possible to identify the main problem, which consists, first of all, in the absence of a single Law of Ukraine "On Weapons". The introduction of a single legislative act on the circulation of weapons in the context of not only the civilian population, but also legal entities of various forms of ownership within the scope of their main activity will overcome difficulties in applying a unified classification of weapons, approaches to their use by different legal entities, their clear documentation and organization of accounting.

Spatiotemporal patterns of firearm acquisition in the United States in different presidential terms.

This study develops mathematical tools and approaches to investigate spatiotemporal patterns of firearm acquisition in the U.S. complemented by hypothesis testing and statistical analysis. First, state-level and nation-level instant background check (BC) data are employed as proxy of firearm acquisition corresponding to 1999-2021. The relative-phase time-series of BC in each U.S. state is recovered and utilized to calculate the time-series of the U.S. states' synchronization degree. We reveal that U.S. states present a high-level degree of synchronization except in 2010-2011 and after 2018. Comparing these results with respect to a sitting U.S. president provides additional information: specifically, any two presidential terms are characterized by statistically different synchronization degrees except G. W. Bush's first term and B. H. Obama's second term. Next, to detail variations of BC, short-time Fourier transform, dimensionality reduction techniques, and diffusion maps are implemented within a time-frequency representation. Firearm acquisition in the high frequency band is described by a low-dimensional embedding, in the form of a plane with two embedding coordinates. Data points on the embedding plane identify separate clusters that signify state transitions in the original BC data with respect to different time windows. Through this analysis, we reveal that the frequency content of the BC data has a time-dependent characteristic. By comparing the diffusion map at hand with respect to a presidential term, we find that at least one of the embedding coordinates presents statistically significant variations between any two presidential terms except B. H. Obama's first term and D. J. Trump's pre-COVID term. The results point at a possible interplay between firearm acquisition in the U.S. and a presidential term.

“I Know a Guy and He’s Got Guns Galore”: Accessing Crime Guns in the Australian Illicit Firearms Market

ABSTRACT Despite there being a highly regulated firearms market, Australian criminals continue to have significant access to illicit firearms. This paper focuses specifically on the role of brokers in the illicit firearms market. It draws from 75 in-depth interviews with prisoners convicted of serious gun-related crimes in Australia. We note how these actors occupy the margins of our interview data yet are seemingly central to the supply and circulation of firearms. Six main means of illicit firearm acquisition are identified, ranging from supply through family members to being vouched for by a known person who provides a bridge to the appropriate supplier (or ‘guy’). The role of straw purchasers, theft, and/or manufacturing in the illicit firearm trade are also explored. We conclude with a provisional profile of the ‘middleman’ and comment on the resilience of the underworld code and its protection of key actors in gun crime milieux as well as implications for prevention and law enforcement.

Proxies for legal firearm prevalence

Product acquisition policies define legal markets. Policy evaluations require data but prevalence data are not always available. We introduce Legal Firearm Prevalence (LFP), a direct behavioral measure based on the population of firearm licensees in Massachusetts, and argue that it can help evaluate firearm sales and usage restrictions. LFP is not directly measurable in most firearm markets, so we test candidate proxies for LFP in several common research designs, finding that firearm acquisitions are the best proxy in every research design tested. We update the classic study of guns and crime by Cook and Ludwig (2006), finding that choosing an invalid proxy can lead to false research conclusions. We recommend systematic collection and reporting of firearm acquisition data to improve firearm research and inform firearm policy.

Firearms Injuries Involving Young Children in the United States During the COVID-19 Pandemic.

Increased rates of firearm ownership, school closures, and a suspected decrease in supervision during the coronavirus disease 2019 (COVID-19) pandemic place young children at increased risk of firearm injuries. We measured trends in firearm injuries in children and inflicted by children discharging a firearm during the pandemic and correlated these changes with a rise in firearm acquisition. In this cross-sectional study with an interrupted time series analysis, we used multiyear data from the Gun Violence Archive. We compared trends in (1) firearm injuries in children younger than 12 years old and (2) firearm injuries inflicted by children younger than 12 years old during the pre-COVID-19 period (March to August in the years 2016-2019) and during the first 6 months of the COVID-19 pandemic (March 2020 to August 2020). Linear regression models were developed to evaluate the relationship between firearm injuries and new firearm acquisitions. There was an increased risk of (1) firearm injuries in young children (relative risk = 1.90; 95% confidence interval 1.58 to 2.29) and (2) firearm injuries inflicted by young children (relative risk = 1.43; 95% confidence interval 1.14 to 1.80) during the first 6 months of the COVID-19 pandemic as compared to the pre-COVID-19 study period. These increased incidents correlate with an increase in new firearm ownership (P < .03). There has been a surge in firearm injuries in young children and inflicted by young children during the first 6 months of the COVID-19 pandemic. There is an urgent and critical need for enactment of interventions aimed at preventing firearm injuries and deaths involving children.

Stress management methods in firearms training

The subject of this research is the development of stress management methods for students in preparatory stage of firearms training. The object of this research is the formation of psychological resilience and improvement of firearms handling skills among the students of educational institutions of the Ministry of Internal Affairs of the Russian Federation. Special attention is given to individual and group approaches towards working with students of training groups at the preparatory stage as the basis for successful completion of the course of firearms training. Emphasis is placed on implementation of stress management techniques in to the practice of firearms training classes throughout the entire training course. The author develops the most effective methods of psychological and pedagogical correction of learning activity of the students of educational institutions of the Ministry of Internal Affairs of the Russian Federation at the stage of formation of firearms handling skills. Particular attention is turned to approbation of such anti-stress techniques for psychological stimulation of students during firearms training classes. The use of these techniques allowed prompted the development of solid skills of firearms hanging and successful stress management in a short period of time. &amp;nbsp;Special focus is made within the framework of teaching stress management techniques is made self-analysis. Research methodology leans on the comprehensive approach towards examining the methods of preparing internal affairs officers. Practical importance of this research lies in development of the most effective methods for acquisition of firearms handling skills.

Perceptions of firearms in a cohort of women exposed to intimate partner violence (IPV) in Central Pennsylvania

BackgroundAlmost one-half of U.S. women will experience intimate partner violence (IPV), defined as physical, sexual, or psychological harm by a current or former partner. IPV is associated with an increased risk of homicide, with firearms as the most commonly used weapon. We designed this study to better understand the correlation of interpersonal trauma exposures and demographic factors on firearm perceptions among a cohort of IPV-exposed women.MethodsTwo hundred sixty-seven women in central Pennsylvania with exposure to IPV were surveyed about perceptions of gun access, safety, and gun presence in the home. Trauma variables included IPV type, IPV recency, unwanted sexual exposure, and adverse childhood experiences (ACEs). Multivariable analyses examined three questions examining firearm perceptions controlling for trauma exposures and demographics.ResultsEase of firearm acquisition: Women who were older (mean 44.92 years +/− SD 12.05), compared to women who were younger (40.91 +/− SD 11.81 years) were more likely to describe it as easy or very easy to acquire a gun (aOR 1.05, 95%CI 1.004, 1.10).Perceived safety in the proximity of a gun: Women with the highest ACE score were less likely to feel safe with a gun nearby (aOR 0.31, 95%CI 0.14, 0.67).Odds of guns in the home: Women who were divorced or separated (aOR 0.22, 95%CI 0.09, 0.54), women were widowed or single (aOR0.23, 95%CI 0.08, 0.67), and women who were partnered (aOR 0.45 95%CI 0.20, 0.97) had lower odds of having a gun in the home, compared to married women. There was no significant effect of the trauma variables on the odds of having a gun at home.ConclusionsWomen with more severe childhood trauma felt less safe around firearms, but trauma exposures did not predict the perception of gun prevalence in the local community or gun ownership. Instead, demographic factors of marriage predicted presence of a gun in the home.

Public Concern About Violence, Firearms, and the COVID-19 Pandemic in California

Violence is a significant public health problem that has become entwined with the coronavirus disease 2019 (COVID-19) pandemic. To describe individuals' concerns regarding violence in the context of the pandemic, experiences of pandemic-related unfair treatment, prevalence of and reasons for firearm acquisition, and changes in firearm storage practices due to the pandemic. This survey study used data from the 2020 California Safety and Well-being Survey, a probability-based internet survey of California adults conducted from July 14 to 27, 2020. Respondents came from the Ipsos KnowledgePanel, an online research panel with members selected using address-based sampling methods. Responses were weighted to be representative of the adult population of California. Topics included worry about violence for oneself before and during the pandemic; concern about violence for someone else due to a pandemic-related loss; experiences of unfair treatment attributed to the pandemic; firearm and ammunition acquisition due to the pandemic; and changes in firearm storage practices due to the pandemic. Of 5018 invited panel members, 2870 completed the survey (completion rate, 57%). Among respondents (52.3% [95% CI, 49.5%-55.0%] women; mean [SD] age, 47.9 [16.9] years; 41.9% [95% CI, 39.3%-44.6%] White individuals), self-reported worry about violence for oneself was significantly higher during the pandemic for all violence types except mass shootings, ranging from a 2.8 percentage point increase for robbery (from 65.5% [95% CI, 62.8%-68.0%] to 68.2% [95% CI, 65.6%-70.7%]; P = .008) to a 5.6 percentage point increase for stray bullet shootings (from 44.5% [95% CI, 41.7%-47.3%] to 50.0% [47.3%-52.8%]; P < .001). The percentage of respondents concerned that someone they know might intentionally harm themselves was 13.1% (95% CI, 11.5%-15.3%). Of those, 7.5% (95% CI, 4.5%-12.2%) said it was because the other person had experienced a pandemic-related loss. An estimated 110 000 individuals (2.4% [95% CI, 1.1%-5.0%] of firearm owners in the state) acquired a firearm due to the pandemic, including 47 000 new owners (43.0% [95% CI, 14.8%-76.6%] of those who had acquired a firearm). Of owners who stored at least 1 firearm in the least secure way, 6.7% (95% CI, 2.7%-15.6%) said they had adopted this unsecure storage practice in response to the pandemic. In this analysis of findings from the 2020 California Safety and Well-being Survey, the COVID-19 pandemic was associated with increases in self-reported worry about violence for oneself and others, increased firearm acquisition, and changes in firearm storage practices. Given the impulsive nature of many types of violence, short-term crisis interventions may be critical for reducing violence-related harm.

Firearm purchases without background checks in California

Background checks are designed to prevent firearm acquisition by people prohibited from purchasing or possessing firearms. There is limited information about background checks, particularly on a state by state basis. We conducted a state-representative, probability-based, Internet survey of California adults in 2018 (n=2558; completion rate 49%) to describe where, when, and how firearms are acquired and to estimate the proportion of current firearm owners who purchased their most recent firearm without a background check. An estimated 17.2% (95% CI: 9.6–28.8) of firearm owners who purchased their most recent firearm within California in 1991 or later, following implementation of the state's comprehensive background check law, reported doing so without a background check. This percentage was 44.6% (95% CI: 27.1–63.5) among owners who purchased their most recent firearm before 1991 and 27.1% (95% CI: 13.1–47.7) among those who purchased their most recent firearm outside California. Firearm purchases without background checks occurred more often for firearms purchased from private sellers (72.3%; 95% CI: 35.5–92.5) than retailers (8.5%; 95% CI: 3.4–19.7). Overall, firearm purchases without background checks are considerably less common in California than in states without regulations on private sales. However, gaps in implementation and proper enforcement remain. Future research could investigate reasons for such lapses, as well as complementary state policy approaches that require background checks prior to point of purchase.

Positive and Negative Affective Processes Associated With Firearm Acquisition and Ownership

Introduction: To examine positive and negative affective processes associated with firearm acquisition and firearm ownership. Methods: An online cross-sectional survey assessing firearm ownership, reasons for firearm ownership, intentions to acquire a firearm in the next 12 months, and positive and negative affective states was administered to 6,200 U.S. adults (49.0% male, 51.0% female). Results: Mean negative and positive affect were significantly elevated among protective firearm owners (i.e., those who kept firearms for the primary purpose of self-protection) and participants intending to acquire a firearm. Protective firearm owners intending to acquire another firearm reported significantly higher negative affect than all other subgroups. Within this subgroup, negative affect and positive affect were positively correlated. Among all other subgroups, negative and positive affect were either negatively correlated or uncorrelated. Discussion: The intention to acquire firearms and protective firearm ownership are associated with both positive and negative affectivity. Typical cognitive-affective processes may be disrupted among protective firearm owners intending to acquire another firearm.

Stay-at-home orders and firearms in the United States during the COVID-19 pandemic

Firearms are a leading cause of death and injury in the United States, and this trend has continued during the COVID-19 pandemic. We sought to identify whether states designated gun retailers as essential businesses in their stay-at-home orders and characterize other references that could affect firearm acquisition during the COVID-19 pandemic. In this cross-sectional policy review, we assessed stay-at-home orders issued in March or April 2020. Orders were reviewed in their entirety, and any reference to firearms, firearm retailers, shooting ranges, or other relevant elements was documented. Forty-three states and the District of Columbia issued stay-at-home orders. Most considered federal firearm licensees to be among essential businesses or made provisions for them to remain open during widespread business closures. Others referenced the US Department of Homeland Security's Cybersecurity and Infrastructure Security Agency (CISA) advisory memorandum on essential critical infrastructure workers which named workers supporting firearm manufacturing and retail among essential workers. Therefore, stay-at-home orders issued in most states included provisions for firearms retailers to remain open, at least in some capacity. Only four states and the District of Columbia did not include federal firearms licensees among essential businesses or include provisions for them to be open. Meanwhile, an all-time high in firearm background checks indicates firearm sales have markedly increased. Given the associations between firearm access and injury risk, the effects of continued firearm access facilitated by these orders should be the focus of future research.

Associations among exaggerated threat perceptions, suicidal thoughts, and suicidal behaviors in U.S. firearm owners

Firearm availability has traditionally been conceptualized as an environmental risk factor for suicide mortality. Firearm acquisition for the primary purpose of self-protection (i.e., protective gun ownership) is often motivated by exaggerated threat expectancies—a central component of anticipatory anxiety—but firearm acquisition may paradoxically reinforce or exacerbate threat expectancies and contribute to behavioral disinhibition. Firearm ownership may therefore confer increased risk for suicide mortality through biobehavioral mechanisms. The present study conducted an initial test of this hypothesis by examining associations among firearm ownership, intentions to acquire additional firearms, threat expectancies, and past-month suicidal thoughts and behaviors using data collected from a national sample of 6200 U.S. adults. Results indicated threat expectancies and rates of suicide-related behaviors were significantly elevated among protective gun owners and participants who intended to acquire a firearm within the next year as compared to non-gun owners and non-protective gun owners. Threat expectancies were associated with significantly increased risk for past-month suicide-related behavior. Results suggest that threat expectancies in particular, and anticipatory anxiety more generally, may be biobehavioral processes associated with the correlation of firearm ownership and increased suicide risk.

Self-Protection versus Fear of Stricter Firearm Regulations: Examining the Drivers of Firearm Acquisitions in the Aftermath of a Mass Shooting

SummaryDiscovering causal mechanisms underlying firearm acquisition can provide critical insight into firearm-related violence in the United States. Here, we established an information-theoretic framework to address the long-disputed dichotomy between self-protection and fear of firearm regulations as potential drivers of firearm acquisition in the aftermath of a mass shooting. We collected data on mass shootings, federal background checks, media output on firearm control and shootings, and firearm safety laws from 1999 to 2017. First, we conducted a cluster analysis to partition States according to the restrictiveness of their firearm-related legal environment. Then, we performed a transfer entropy analysis to unveil causal relationships at the State-level in the Wiener-Granger sense. The analysis suggests that fear of stricter firearm regulations is a stronger driver than the desire of self-protection for firearm acquisitions. This fear is likely to cross State borders, thereby shaping a collective pattern of firearm acquisition throughout the Nation.