US Fire Research Articles

Quantifying the relationship between US residential mobility and fire service call volume

Quantifying the relationship between US residential mobility and fire service call volume

S17-01 Use of biomarkers of effect in evaluating toxicity in firefighters: Results from the US Fire Fighter Cancer Cohort Study

S17-01 Use of biomarkers of effect in evaluating toxicity in firefighters: Results from the US Fire Fighter Cancer Cohort Study

Mental Health Disorders, Organizational Stigma, and Health Service Utilization Among US Fire Investigators: A Cross-sectional Survey.

The aim of the study is to estimate in a sample of US fire investigators the (1) prevalence of generalized anxiety disorder (GAD), depression, posttraumatic stress disorder (PTSD) risk, and mental health services use and (2) association between organizational stigma and mental health disorders. This is a cross-sectional study design used to administer between November 2023 and January 2024, a 35-item behavioral/mental health survey. Approximately 18.0% of fire investigators had GAD, 22.8% depression, and 18.2% PTSD risk. Organizational stigma about mental health disorders was reported by 53.3% of fire investigators. The most frequently used behavioral/mental health services were cognitive behavioral therapy (40.1%) and medication management (36.1%). Organizational stigma around reporting mental health disorders was significantly associated with PTSD risk (adjusted odds ratio = 5.25 [2.41-11.43]). Mental health disorders are present in the fire investigator workforce, and organizational stigma is associated with limited report of PTSD risk.

Prevalence and predictors of colon and prostate cancer screening among volunteer firefighters: The United States Firefighter Cancer Assessment and Prevention Study.

Although firefighters have increased risk for colon and prostate cancer, limited information exists on screening practices for these cancers in volunteer firefighters who compose two-thirds of the US fire service. We estimated the prevalence of colon and prostate cancer screening among volunteer firefighters using eligibility criteria from 4 evidence-based screening recommendations and evaluated factors influencing screening. We evaluated colon (n = 569) and prostate (n = 498) cancer screening prevalence in a sample of US volunteer firefighters using eligibility criteria from the US Preventive Services Taskforce (USPSTF), National Fire Protection Association, American Cancer Society, and National Comprehensive Cancer Network. We assessed associations with fire service experience, demographics, and cancer risk perception based on USPSTF guidelines. For those eligible based on USPSTF guidelines, colon and prostate cancer screening prevalence was 51.7% (95% CI: 45.7, 57.8) and 48.8% (95% CI: 40.0, 57.6), respectively. Higher odds of colon and prostate cancer screening were observed with older age and with some college education compared to those with less education. Fire service experience and cancer risk perception were not associated with screening practices. This is the first large study to assess colon and prostate cancer screening among US volunteer firefighters based on different screening guidelines. Our findings suggest gaps in cancer prevention efforts in the US volunteer fire service. Promoting cancer screening education and opportunities for volunteer firefighters by their fire departments, healthcare professionals, and public health practitioners, may help to address the gaps.

By Nature, We're Doers and Problem Solvers: Evolving Job Demands and Resources in Response to COVID-19 Among US-Based Fire Service Personnel (The RAPID Study II).

The US fire service experienced increased demands due to COVID-19. This qualitative study explored the pandemic's impact on work-life balance and safety. Five interviews and 10 focus groups were conducted with 15 fire departments in the COVID-19 RAPID Mental Health Assessment. Coding and multilevel content analysis were conducted in NVivo. Four department support themes were identified: emotional/social (33.1%), policy (28.4%), instrumental (22.9%), and informational (15.5%). Four work-life balance themes were identified: life (51.2%), children (18.1%), physiological (16.5%), and work (14.2%). We observed more departmental resources to help mitigate job demands within the work environment compared with those for work-life demands. Job resources are needed to mitigate demands and improve safety culture and mental well-being of the fire service under normal conditions, and for the next pandemic, natural disaster, or long-term emergency.

Norms about Alcohol Use among US Firefighters

BackgroundProblem drinking is a perennial concern in the US fire service. A large literature has documented the importance of addressing alcohol norms in intervention research. The purpose of this study was to explore alcohol norms in a national cohort of firefighters (FFs) to inform intervention development in this occupational group. MethodsData were from a national online survey of career and volunteer FFs (N = 674). Participants were recruited through national fire service listservs and a database of FFs who had agreed to be contacted for research. ResultsWhen asked about “acceptable” levels of alcohol consumption, FFs on average suggested levels which exceeded public health guidelines. Further, approximately half of career and volunteer FFs believed that, at least under some circumstances, drinking until intoxicated was normative. When asked how long should elapse between a FFs last drink and reporting for duty, the average suggested lag was 11.2 hours (sd = 4.6). However, among male volunteer FFs who reported heavy drinking, the average was 6.68 hours (sd = 4.77). ConclusionsGiven the high prevalence of heavy and binge drinking in the fire service, it is not surprising that the alcohol norms found in this study were consistent with a culture of drinking. Participants' reports of alcohol use among their peers were consistent with the actual prevalence of problem drinking. Thus, education and prevention efforts in this occupation should focus on changing norms about alcohol use, including linking heavy drinking to other health and safety issues they face.

An Exploration of the Servant Leadership Literature in Connection with the US Fire Department Leadership Practices and Behaviors

This article uses a content analysis exploration of the literature to explore Servant leadership as a viable leadership model for U.S. fire department leaders and supervisors. Despite the importance of leadership to the paramilitary structure of the fire service, career fire department leaders do not generally receive mandated leadership training or knowledge of existing leadership theories that might assist them in their roles as leaders. Instead, in the fire services, leadership reflects the amount of time that career fire department officers have spent within the system. Servant leadership emphasizes the development of individuals so that the organization can become better and more productive.

The effects of empowerment at multiple leadership levels in the fire service: a moderated mediation model

PurposeWhile uncertainty during emergency response operations necessitates adaptive performance, emergency response organizations, such as the fire service, tend to constrain adaptive behaviors due to their highly formalized bureaucratic structures. Structural theories suggest that leaders can empower employees to bypass these constraints.Design/methodology/approachUsing survey data from four US fire departments, this research tests whether mid-level supervisors can empower firefighters by increasing their ability to improvise during complex emergency response operations, and whether this enhances department adaptive performance. Moderated mediation is also performed to assess whether senior leaders must also be effective, empowering leaders in order to achieve heightened levels of empowerment and subsequent adaptive performance, as many senior leaders in the fire service are criticized for being overly bureaucratic, risk averse, and resistant to change.FindingsThe findings support compensatory effects and show how immediate supervisors are key to overcoming senior leader deficiencies and producing adaptive performance during conditions of high uncertainty and complexity.Originality/valueThe lack of response organizations’ success during complex incidents is often attributed to senior leaders who are risk averse, overly bureaucratic, and resistant to change (Wankhade and Patnaik, 2020). This study is the first to show how empowering leadership can help overcome these constraints to enhance adaptive performance under complex conditions in the fire service.

Size matters: How safety climate and downstream outcomes vary by fire department organization type

BackgroundSafety climate is an upstream predictor of safety behaviors (e.g., safety compliance), organizational outcomes (e.g., burnout, engagement), and safety outcomes (e.g., injuries). The Fire Service Organizational Culture of Safety (FOCUS) survey, which was psychometrically validated, measures the industry-specific safety climate of the US fire and rescue service. It is expressed by two factors, Management Commitment to Safety and Supervisor Support for Safety.MethodsThe FOCUS beta-test included a random sample of 132 fire departments stratified by Federal Emergency Management Agency region and organization type (career, combination, volunteer). We conducted descriptive analysis with the responses from 8414 firefighters nested within 611 stations in 125 fire departments. We reported descriptive statistics to assess the distribution of all continuous [mean ± standard deviation (SD)] and categorical variables (counts, percentages) stratified by organization type. Regression analyses were conducted to investigate the associations between safety climate, safety behaviors, organizational outcomes, and safety outcomes stratified by organization type.ResultsThe mean age of the analytic sample was 40.2 years, and the mean years of experience was 16.1 years. This sample included 53.6% career, 27.2% combination (career and volunteer), and 19.2% volunteer fire departments. The mean Management Commitment score was 71.4 (SD = ± 10.4), and the mean Supervisor Support score was 81.7 (± 5.2). The mean Management Commitment scores were 67.1 (± 8.4), 72.2 (± 10.7), and 82.1 (± 6.1), respectively, for career, combination, and volunteer fire departments. The mean Supervisor Support scores were not notably different by organization type. Regression analyses generally supported the beneficial role of safety climate, while suggesting organization type as a potential effect modifier. Specifically, we observed a more negative association between Management Commitment as departments became more career.ConclusionsAnalysis of nationally representative data from the US fire and rescue service indicates safety climate is positively associated with safety behavior, organizational outcomes, and safety outcomes reflecting employee well-being. The findings also suggest that this association varies by organization type. In fact, a dose–response relationship was observed, with Management Commitment to safety lowest among career departments. Thus, our results suggest that it is not just being busy that decreases Management Commitment.

Occupational factors and miscarriages in the US fire service: a cross-sectional analysis of women firefighters

BackgroundEvidence from previous studies suggests that women firefighters have greater risk of some adverse reproductive outcomes. The purpose of this study was to investigate whether women firefighters had greater risk of miscarriage compared to non-firefighters and whether there were occupational factors associated with risk of miscarriage among firefighters.MethodsWe studied pregnancies in the United States fire service using data from the Health and Wellness of Women Firefighters Study (n = 3181). We compared the prevalence of miscarriage among firefighters to published rates among non-firefighters using age-standardized prevalence ratios. We used generalized estimating equations to estimate relative risks (RRs) and 95% confidence intervals (CIs) between occupational factors (employment (career/volunteer), wildland firefighter status (wildland or wildland-urban-interface/structural), shift schedule, fire/rescue calls at pregnancy start) and risk of miscarriage, adjusted for age at pregnancy, education, gravidity, BMI, and smoking. We evaluated if associations varied by age at pregnancy or employment.ResultsAmong 1074 firefighters and 1864 total pregnancies, 404 pregnancies resulted in miscarriages (22%). Among most recent pregnancies, 138 resulted in miscarriage (13%). Compared to a study of US nurses, firefighters had 2.33 times greater age-standardized prevalence of miscarriage (95% CI 1.96–2.75). Overall, we observed that volunteer firefighters had an increased risk of miscarriage which varied by wildland status (interaction p-value< 0.01). Among structural firefighters, volunteer firefighters had 1.42 times the risk of miscarriage (95% CI 1.11–1.80) compared to career firefighters. Among wildland/wildland-urban-interface firefighters, volunteer firefighters had 2.53 times the risk of miscarriage (95% CI 1.35–4.78) compared to career firefighters.ConclusionsAge-standardized miscarriage prevalence among firefighters may be greater than non-firefighters and there may be variation in risk of miscarriage by fire service role. Further research is needed to clarify these associations to inform policy and decision-making.

Firefighters and COVID-19: An Occupational Health Perspective.

Firefighters and COVID-19: An Occupational Health Perspective.

A qualitative study to assess perceptions, barriers, and motivators supporting smokeless tobacco cessation in the US fire service.

While firefighters currently have low smoking rates, rates of smokeless tobacco (SLT) use among this population are remarkably high and substantially greater than similar occupational groups, and the general population. This study explored determinants associated with SLT use, barriers to cessation, and motivators for SLT cessation in the fire service. Key informant interviews were conducted in 23 career firefighters who were current (n = 14) and former (n = 9) SLT users from across the U.S. Discussions were recorded and independently coded according to questions and themes. Major themes that developed among firefighters regarding SLT use determinants included positive perceptions of SLT products, social influences from their peers and family members, acceptability of SLT use in the fire service, and a coping resource for job stress. Firefighters discussed several barriers to SLT cessation, including intrapersonal barriers such as SLT use habits and its dependency, concerns about withdrawal symptoms; and social-environmental barriers including lack of support from health and other services providers, and lack of enforcement of existing tobacco policies regarding SLT use. Firefighters also mentioned both internal and external motivators for cessation. Internal motivators included self-motivation and their health concerns while external motivators included friends and family support, incentives or rewards, and price of SLT products. Findings provide unique perspectives from firefighters on factors that influence SLT use and barriers and motivators to SLT cessation. These are insufficiently assessed and considered by the fire service organizations and their health care providers. Thus, the organizations must understand these issues in order to mitigate barriers and motivate the personnel to quit using SLT. Information gained from firefighters who were current and former SLT users can be used to develop an effective, culturally-tailored intervention that is acceptable to fire service personnel.

Development and beta test of a smokeless tobacco cessation program for firefighters.

INTRODUCTIONThe prevalence of smokeless tobacco (SLT) use among firefighters is substantially higher than the general population and similar occupational groups. Despite the significant health risks associated with SLT and its impact on occupational readiness, there are no occupationally-tailored SLT education or treatment programs for the fire service. The purpose of this study was to beta test QUIT SPIT!, a self-help SLT cessation program that is culturally tailored for the US fire service and firefighters who are interested in quitting.METHODSAfter development and tailoring the QUIT SPIT! SLT cessation program for firefighters, the feasibility and acceptability of the program were evaluated in a sample of eleven SLT-using firefighters who wanted to quit. The primary outcome was a 7-day point prevalence of SLT abstinence measured at 4 and 12 weeks post-enrollment follow-up assessments.RESULTSFour firefighters reported having quit SLT (7-days point prevalence) at follow-up at 12 weeks. Those who did not achieve SLT abstinence reported reductions in frequency and quantity in SLT use and demonstrated a decrease in nicotine dependence. Firefighters also reported being satisfied with the QUIT SPIT! cessation program.CONCLUSIONSThe results provide strong support for the feasibility and acceptability of the QUIT SPIT! in SLT-using firefighters interested in quitting. The findings provide critical information about the next steps for further development and evaluation of the QUIT SPIT! program.

미국 소방서의 공간특성에 관한 연구 - 소방서 디자인 수상작을 중심으로 -

In the USA, fire stations have been constructed according to Design Standard Manual with the consideration of the working environment, health and safety of their fire-fighters, while in Korea the study of foreign standards and cases are necessary since the space research of fire stations began not long ago. Accordingly, in order to study arrangement methods, zoning and flow of human traffic, space requirement and planning by space area and area characteristic, 11 cases among those Fire Station Symposium Design Awards presented every year by USA F.I.E.R.O. were selected whose drawings are officially offered at Web Sites. The followings are the results of researching the space characteristics of US fire stations. First, the arrangement methods of 11 fire stations in the USA have been categorized into Eccentric Type, Centric Type and Intrusive Type based on space construction of fire engine garage to find each characteristic. Second, based on whether there is any clear classification of contamination control area and the method of Hot Zones Composition with the fire-fighters’ sanitation and safety, the plan of zoning and their movement routes considered has been categorized into adjacent type and separate type. Third, the spatial organization has been categorized into mobilization area, contamination control area, administration & training area and residing area along with the classification of basically necessary space and any additional needed space depending on features of each fire-station. Fourth, it has been found that the average area of US Fire-Stations is 1387.6㎡ and their average areas by size are 2264.53㎡(big), 1298.35㎡(middle) and 846.75㎡(small).

Pre-season fire management planning: the use of Potential Operational Delineations to prepare for wildland fire events

US fire scientists are developing Potential Wildfire Operational Delineations, also known as ‘PODs’, as a pre-fire season planning tool to promote safe and effective wildland fire response, strengthen risk management approaches in fire management and better align fire management objectives. PODs are a collaborative planning approach based on spatial analytics to identify potential wildfire control lines and assess the desirability of fire before ignition. They offer the opportunity to apply risk management principles with partners before the compressed timeframe of incident response. We sought to understand the potential utility of PODs and factors that may affect their use through semistructured interviews with personnel on several national forests. Interviewees said PODs offer a promising shift in the wildland fire management dynamic, particularly by facilitating proactive communication and coordination about wildfire response. Successfully employing PODs will require leadership commitment, stakeholder and partner engagement and interdisciplinary staff involvement. Our work offers insights for national forests and other jurisdictions where managers are looking to strengthen coordination and strategic approaches for wildland fire response by utilising pre-season collaboration and data analytics.

FIRED (Fire Events Delineation): An Open, Flexible Algorithm and Database of US Fire Events Derived from the MODIS Burned Area Product (2001–2019)

Harnessing the fire data revolution, i.e., the abundance of information from satellites, government records, social media, and human health sources, now requires complex and challenging data integration approaches. Defining fire events is key to that effort. In order to understand the spatial and temporal characteristics of fire, or the classic fire regime concept, we need to critically define fire events from remote sensing data. Events, fundamentally a geographic concept with delineated spatial and temporal boundaries around a specific phenomenon that is homogenous in some property, are key to understanding fire regimes and more importantly how they are changing. Here, we describe Fire Events Delineation (FIRED), an event-delineation algorithm, that has been used to derive fire events (N = 51,871) from the MODIS MCD64 burned area product for the coterminous US (CONUS) from January 2001 to May 2019. The optimized spatial and temporal parameters to cluster burned area pixels into events were an 11-day window and a 5-pixel (2315 m) distance, when optimized against 13,741 wildfire perimeters in the CONUS from the Monitoring Trends in Burn Severity record. The linear relationship between the size of individual FIRED and Monitoring Trends in Burn Severity (MTBS) events for the CONUS was strong (R2 = 0.92 for all events). Importantly, this algorithm is open-source and flexible, allowing the end user to modify the spatio-temporal threshold or even the underlying algorithm approach as they see fit. We expect the optimized criteria to vary across regions, based on regional distributions of fire event size and rate of spread. We describe the derived metrics provided in a new national database and how they can be used to better understand US fire regimes. The open, flexible FIRED algorithm could be utilized to derive events in any satellite product. We hope that this open science effort will help catalyze a community-driven, data-integration effort (termed OneFire) to build a more complete picture of fire.

Development of the Evacuation Support System for the Socially Disadvantaged Group: Focused on the Fire Disaster in the Public Facilities

This study investigated the policy characteristics in the extension of the disaster management policy for the socially disadvantaged based on the characteristics of safety management in the US building safety management and fire fighting laws. Since the purpose of preparing an evacuation system in case of fire for the socially disadvantaged is to establish a tight safety net that considers the various disaster vulnerabilities of the socially underprivileged, rather than finding a consensus at the general level, a sufficient discussion process was prepared and should be sufficiently reflected the positions and problems of the socially disadvantaged group. And it is necessary for the subject of preparing the safety management plan or evacuation plan to prepare a plan that takes into account the fundamental characteristics of the socially disadvantaged of the facility or the structural characteristics of the building. Finally, it is necessary to periodically check the safety management plan and the effectiveness of evacuation measures in the facility through scenario-based training involving socially disadvantaged groups.

Impact of Repeated Exposure and Cleaning on Protective Properties of Structural Firefighting Turnout Gear

The US fire service has become acutely aware of the need to clean PPE after fires. However, there is concern that damage from repeated cleaning may impact critical protection from fireground risk. Using a protocol that included repeated simulated fireground exposures (between 0 cycles and 40 cycles) and/or repeated cleaning with techniques common in the fire service, we found that several important protective properties of NFPA 1971 compliant turnout gear are significantly changed. Outer shell and thermal liner tear strength showed a statistically significant reduction when laundered as compared to wet or dry decontamination. Larger changes in outer shell tear strength resulted when the coat closure incorporated hook & dee clasps as compared with garments using zippered closures. Total Heat Loss was reduced for all samples that underwent any form of cleaning while Thermal Protective Performance was only increased in the gear that was laundered. These results suggest that some important protective properties of bunker gear can be decreased after repeated exposure/cleaning cycles relative to their levels when tested in a new condition. For the specific materials tested, outer shell trap tear strength in the fill direction and seam strength dropped below NFPA 1971 requirements after 40 laundering cycles. The findings for this study may have utility for setting preconditions for the measurement of certain performance properties in future editions of NFPA 1971.

Spatial analysis of wildfire incidence in the USA: the role of climatic spillovers

Wildfires constitute a serious threat for both the environment and human well-being. The US fire policy aims to tackle this problem, devoting a sizeable amount of resources and resorting extensively to fire suppression strategies. The theoretical literature has established a link between climate conditions and wildfire incidence. Using state-level data from 2002 to 2013 for the USA, this work proposes a wildfire incidence indicator and runs a generalized spatial ordered probit model in order to test the findings of the previous literature empirically. Moreover, this article investigates the extent of spatial spillovers in the climatic covariates. The results highlight a significant impact of precipitation and temperature on fire incidence and provide some evidence of the role of spatial spillovers. In particular, transitions from lower to higher wildfire incidence levels are significantly encouraged by increases in local temperature and significantly discouraged by increases in both local precipitation and lagged precipitation. The present analysis complements the recent literature, confirming the previous findings with a solid empirical investigation and offering a policy-oriented picture of wildfire risks all over the USA.

Injury Correlates Among a National Sample of Women in the US Fire Service.

To examine occupational injuries among career women firefighters (FFs). A national cross-sectional survey assessed injury prevalence, types, frequencies, and predictors. A total of 3012 women career FFs were enrolled in the study. Almost a third (31.7%) reported at least one occupational injury in the past 12 months. The most common injuries were dislocations, sprains, or strains (59.3%). Racial minority status, self-rated health, body composition, exercise habits, substance use, mental health, and job dissatisfaction were all significant injury correlates. Nearly 43% of injuries resulted in missed workdays. Additionally, 25% reported incurring chronic injuries. Women FFs reported a high prevalence of occupational injury and a significant percentage reported chronic injuries. These data can inform initiatives to curtail injuries in the fire service and better protect women FFs.