Finnish Sources Research Articles

P1050 A cost-utility analysis of ferric derisomaltose versus ferric carboxymaltose in patients with inflammatory bowel disease and iron deficiency anaemia in Finland

Abstract Background Anaemia is a common extraintestinal manifestation of inflammatory bowel disease (IBD), with iron deficiency being the most common cause. Iron deficiency anaemia (IDA) can be treated with oral iron, but where oral administration is contraindicated, not tolerated, or proves to be ineffective, intravenous (IV) iron is the preferred treatment option, facilitating rapid iron replenishment. Ferric derisomaltose (FDI) and ferric carboxymaltose (FCM) are two high-dose, rapid-infusion, IV iron formulations that have recently been compared in three head-to-head randomized controlled trials (RCTs), with FCM administration resulting in significantly higher hypophosphataemia incidence versus FDI, and phosphate monitoring after repeat FCM infusions is now recommended in the FCM product information (PI). Between 2000 and 2020, Finland has seen the average incidence of IBD increase by 2.4% annually, accompanied by a commensurate increase in sequelae such as IDA. The objective of the present study was therefore to evaluate the cost-utility of FDI versus FCM in patients with IBD and IDA in Finland. Methods A published patient-level simulation model was used to evaluate the cost-utility of FDI versus FCM in Finland. The model captured quality of life differences based on SF-36 data from the PHOSPHARE-IBD RCT and differences in the number of FDI and FCM infusions required. A Finnish societal perspective was adopted and the analysis was conducted over a five-year time horizon. Unit costs were obtained from publicly available Finnish sources. Costs were reported in 2022 Euros and a discount rate of 3% per annum was applied to future costs and effects. Results Over the five-year time horizon, patients received 3.95 courses of iron treatment on average, requiring 1.63 fewer infusions of FDI than FCM (5.57 versus 7.20). This resulted in iron procurement and administration cost savings of EUR 471 with FDI versus FCM (EUR 2,286 versus EUR 2,757). Differences in health-related quality of life and the number of IV iron infusions resulted in an increase of 0.076 quality-adjusted life years with FDI versus FCM. Further cost savings of EUR 273 over five years were also realised with FDI versus FCM, driven by reduced need for phosphate testing (saving EUR 90) and reduced travel and productivity loss (saving EUR 183). Total cost savings were EUR 745 (Figure) and FDI was therefore the dominant intervention. Conclusion Relative to FCM, FDI resulted in improvements in quality-adjusted life expectancy in Finnish patients with IBD and IDA. FDI also resulted in cost savings, arising from reduced infusion frequency, phosphate monitoring, patient travel, and productivity loss. FDI therefore represents the dominant choice of IV iron in Finnish patients with IBD and IDA.

From Tabermann to Mr. Baudelaire. Allusions and popular culture references in the Finnish comic Northern Overexposure and their English translations

Comics, as other written works, contains allusions that serve many functions and might be difficult to translate due to cultural differences. The aim of this article is to analyse the selected allusions and popular culture references in the Finnish comic Northern Overexposure and compare the Finnish source text with the English target text. In addition, the function of these allusions as well as the relevant cultural background are covered. The examples were analysed with Ritva Leppihalme’s (1997) strategies for translating allusions. The article also provides insight into the Finnish field of comics and the translation process of the selected comic.

Bilingual personal designations in medieval Finnish sources

Bilingual personal designations in medieval Finnish sources

Influence of spatial resolution on population PM2.5 exposure and health impacts

Health effect estimates depend on the methods of evaluating exposures. Due to non-linearities in the exposure-response relationships, both the predicted mean exposures as well as its spatial variability are significant. The aim of this work is to systematically quantify the impact of the spatial resolution on population-weighted mean concentration (PWC), its variance, and mortality attributable to fine particulate matter (PM2.5) exposure in Finland in 2015. The atmospheric chemical transport model SILAM was used to estimate the ambient air PM2.5 concentrations at 0.02° longitudinal × 0.01° latitudinal resolution (ca. 1 km), including both the national PM2.5 emissions and the long-range transport. The decision-support model FRES source-receptor matrices applied at 250-m resolution was used to model the ambient air concentrations of primary fine particulate matter (PPM2.5) from local and regional sources up to 10 km and 20 km distances. Numerical averaging of population and concentrations was used to produce the results for coarser resolutions. Population-weighted PM2.5 concentration was 11% lower at a resolution of 50 km, compared with the corresponding computations at a resolution of 1 km. However, considering only the national emissions, the influences of spatial averaging were substantially larger. The average population-weighted local PPM2.5 concentration originated from Finnish sources was 70% lower at a resolution of 50 km, compared with the corresponding result obtained using a resolution of 250 m. The sensitivity to spatial averaging, between the finest 250-m and the coarsest 50-km resolution, was highest for the emissions of PPM2.5 originated from national vehicular traffic (about 80% decrease) and lowest for the national residential combustion (60% decrease). Exposure estimates in urban areas were more sensitive to the changes of model resolution (14% and 74% decrease for PM2.5 and local PPM2.5, respectively), compared with estimates in rural areas (2% decrease for PM2.5 and 36% decrease for PPM2.5). We conclude that for the evaluation of the health impacts of air pollution, the resolution of the model computations is an important factor, which can potentially influence the predicted health impacts by tens of percent or more, especially when assessing the impacts of national emissions.

Cost-effectiveness of secukinumab compared to other biologics in the treatment of ankylosing spondylitis in Finland.

AimThis study assesses the cost-effectiveness of secukinumab vs currently licensed biologics for the treatment of ankylosing spondylitis (AS) from the Finnish health care system perspective.MethodsA semi-Markov model compared secukinumab with adalimumab, adalimumab biosimilar, certolizumab pegol, etanercept, etanercept biosimilar, golimumab, and infliximab in a biologic-naïve population over a lifetime horizon. The Bath Ankylosing Spondylitis Disease Activity Index (BASDAI) was used to assess the treatment response. Efficacy inputs were obtained from the network meta-analysis, and other model inputs were obtained from the published literature and Finnish sources. Main study outcomes included quality-adjusted life years (QALYs) gained and incremental cost-effectiveness ratio in terms of cost per QALY gained. Robustness of results was confirmed by sensitivity analyses and alternative scenario analyses.ResultsSecukinumab achieved highest QALYs (13.1) at lowest expected lifetime cost (€279,872) vs other comparators in biologic-naïve AS patients in the base case analysis, thus it dominated other biologics. Golimumab had a second highest QALYs (12.9) at the total cost of €309,551. Results were sensitive to variation in BASDAI 50 response for secukinumab, baseline Bath Ankylosing Spondylitis Functional Index (BASFI) score across all drugs, change in BASDAI and BASFI scores, and discount rates as observed in the one-way sensitivity analyses. Secukinumab was either dominant or cost-effective treatment in different alternative scenarios.ConclusionSecukinumab presented itself to be the dominant (ie, less costly and more effective) treatment vs other comparators for the biologic-naïve patients with AS in Finland.

High-involvement management practices, job control, and employee well-being in the public and private sectors. Evidence from Finland

The connection between high-involvement management (HIM), entailing heavy employee involvement, and employee well-being is a controversial and widely discussed topic. Clarifying how job satisfaction and stress are connected to HIM and job control (the control employees have over their work), this study is based on data from two Finnish sources: an employer survey investigating the extent of HIM within an organisation, and employee assessments of job control, stress and job satisfaction. Logistic regression models were used as the study method. In contrast to previous Finnish studies, our findings show that HIM seems hardly to benefit employee well-being. Especially in the public sector, the correlation between extensive HIM and employee well-being turned out to be negative. However, HIM in the private sector was positively related to job satisfaction. As expected, a high level of job control was regularly associated with greater well-being.

Terijoen laukausten pitkä kaiku: Mihail Herzensteinin murha toisen sortokauden taustalla by Marina Vituhnovskaja-Kauppala (review)

SEER, 95, 4, OCTOBER 2017 774 movement and radical politics. It should interest not only those with an interest in the history of late imperial Russia, but those researching urban history and the history of terrorism. Department of History George Gilbert University of Southampton Vituhnovskaja-Kauppala, Marina. Terijoen laukausten pitkä kaiku: Mihail Herzensteinin murha toisen sortokauden taustalla. Historiallinen Arkisto, 144. Finnish Literature Society, Helsinki, 2016. 357 pp. Illustrations. Notes. Bibliography. Index. €40.00 (paperback). Marina Vituhnovskaja-Kauppala, who teaches at the University of Helsinki, presents in this book a case study of the 1906 murder of the Russian Constitutional Democratic Party (or Kadet) leader Mikhail Herzenstein and the subsequent three-year trial of his murderers. She uses the trial and the attendant polemics to provide a new perspective on the processes that led to the following, effectual abolition of Finnish autonomy by the Russian Imperial state. The result is the most detailed account we have of the investigation into the Herzenstein assassination and one that succeeds well in showing the resultant trial’s centrality as a catalyst for the rise and state co-optation of Far Right Russian nationalism in the 1910s. Mikhail Herzenstein was a member from Moscow in the first Russian State Duma and a key leader in the Kadet Party. Born a Jew but converted into the Russian Orthodox Church, an accomplished economist active also as a liberal reformist polemicist, after the Revolution of 1905 he emerged as the principal author of the Kadets’ land reform programme and as one of their most visible public representatives. Consequently targeted by the antisemitic Black Hundreds (Chornaia sotnia) as one of their principal enemies, he was assassinated by their agents in the Finnish town of Terijoki in July 1906. Vituhnovskaja-Kauppala tracks the 1907–09 murder trial in exhausting, indeed excruciating detail, and she contextualizes the attendant polemics with the rise of the Black Hundreds’ influence. She shows how Tsar Nicholas II and his inner cadre grew steadily more frustrated as the trial proceeded, appalled by the Finnish judge’s and prosecutor’s presumption to sit in judgement of Russian nationals, and steadily more determined to end Finnish autonomy. From an impressive range of Russian and Finnish sources, VituhnovskajaKauppala shows also how the alliance of the Black Hundreds with the Russian Imperial state (and with Nicholas II himself) progressively deepened during the trial and how it was that the trial convinced them (and the tsar) that REVIEWS 775 Finland had become a principal seedbed for subversion and had to be repressed. More modernized and economically advanced than Russia itself, ethnically and culturally different, and governed by a more liberal constitutional order, Finland was deeply suspect to the Black Hundreds to begin, seen by them as a dangerous inspiration and example to Russia’s liberals, Socialists and ethnic minorities. The way in which the Finnish legal system, separate from the Russian Imperial one, exposed the Black Hundreds’ campaigns of terror and assassination — and their linkages to the Russian secret services — then turned the Black Hundreds ineluctably against it. The trial occasioned a steadily more extreme stream of Black Hundreds press polemics about a claimed Finnish-Jewish-Russian liberal conspiracy against the Imperial Russian state. Vituhnovskaja-Kauppala reconstructs and expertly contextualizes these polemics. She also tracks the constant obstruction of the trial by Imperial authorities. These authorities protected those charged and implicated, and they tried repeatedly to have the entire legal process ended. The Russian Imperial state’s collusion with the Black Hundreds becomes very clear as the book proceeds, trial session by trial session. Akeyfigurethroughoutwastheone-timepaediatricianAleksandrDubrovin, head of the Union of the Russian People, a key Black Hundreds organization. Vituhnovskaja-Kauppala establishes that he was behind the Herzenstein assassination but that he escaped arrest because of the tsar’s personal protection. Later he emerged from hiding as a key figure behind the notorious Beilis Trial of 1913. All but one of those actually convicted of the Herzenstein assassination were promptly pardoned by the tsar, and some of them continued their Far Right activities afterwards. As is well known, other Black Hundreds activists later moved to Nazi Germany and continued their murderous work there. Dubrovin’s Union of the Russian People was...

Cultural Dimensions of Poetry Translation

Abstract The present research analyses Hungarian and English target-language translations of contemporary Finnish poems. The translation solutions of culturally-bound lexical elements are compared in both Finnish-Hungarian and Finnish-English translation directions. The analysis is carried out using a text corpus comprising Hungarian and English translations of Finnish poems published after 1950. The text corpus consists of 160 Finnish source poems and their 160 Hungarian and 160 English target-language translations. The objective of the research is to reveal the cultural aspects of the translation of poetry and to answer the question as to what types of translation solutions literary translators use when translating culturally-bound lexical elements in Finnish poems into Hungarian and English. Results show that English-language translators of contemporary Finnish poems more frequently use translation solutions which are less creative and do not stray far from the original source language text. Hungarian translators, on the other hand, are more courageous in deviating from the source text and adapting their translations to the target language. This can be explained by reference to the two translation contexts or as a result of genre-specific reasons.

Contingent Valuation of Eight New Treatments: What is the Clinician's and Politician's Willingness to Pay?

Objective: To assess the willingness to pay (WTP) for eight new treatments from a life-long perspective. Methods: A contingent valuation with virtual examples and dichotomous choice questions is circulated to Finnish clinicians (N 146) and politicians (N 73). Costs and utilities (15D, EQ-5D) are obtained from Finnish sources, and the health care payer perspective is assumed. Health benefits are measured using life-years gained (LYG) and quality-adjusted life-years (QALY) gained, and 3% and 0% annual discounting is done. The results are presented as different WTP thresholds (incremental and aggregate cost-effectiveness ratios, and incremental investments, II). Heterogeneity is handled using conditional (Hurdle) modeling. Results: In 1,092 decisions, the mean discounted (undiscounted) incremental WTP/QALY gained is €102,616 (€78,686) and €94,770 (€77,856) measured with 15D and EQ-5D, respectively. The mean discounted (undiscounted) incremental WTP/LYG is €66,277 (€58,160). The highest incremental WTPs are reported for cancer (€205,994-250,509/QALY gained) and lowest for metabolic disease (€23,492-43,398/QALY gained) treatment. The discounted (undiscounted) IIs to health care are €83,886 (€85,398) Euros; metabolic presenting the highest (€199,499-213,808) and coronary heart disease treatment (€36,124-36,736) the lowest value for the lifetime of the patient. WTP is dependent upon disease/treatment, patient's age, time preference, health benefit type and discounting. Minor differences between clinicians and politicians are observed. Conclusion: WTP vary for different diseases and is not explained by incremental costs. Thus, a single WTP for all treatments/diseases hypothesis do not gain empirical support - WTP is better explained by treatment and patient/disease characteristics. Cost-effectiveness and II have a trade-off, which encourages studies including both efficiency and affordability.

Evaluation of the European population intake fractions for European and Finnish anthropogenic primary fine particulate matter emissions

The intake fraction (iF) has been defined as the integrated incremental intake of a pollutant released from a source category or region summed over all exposed individuals. In this study we evaluated the iFs in the population of Europe for emissions of anthropogenic primary fine particulate matter (PM 2.5) from sources in Europe, with a more detailed analysis of the iF from Finnish sources. Parameters for calculating the iFs include the emission strengths, the predicted atmospheric concentrations, European population data, and the average breathing rate per person. Emissions for the whole of Europe and Finland were based on the inventories of the European Monitoring and Evaluation Programme (EMEP) and the Finnish Regional Emission Scenario (FRES) model, respectively. The atmospheric dispersion of primary PM 2.5 was computed using the regional-scale dispersion model SILAM. The iFs from Finnish sources were also computed separately for six emission source categories. The iFs corresponding to the primary PM 2.5 emissions from the European countries for the whole population of Europe were generally highest for the densely populated Western European countries, second highest for the Eastern and Southern European countries, and lowest for the Northern European and Baltic countries. For the entire European population, the iF values varied from the lowest value of 0.31 per million for emissions from Cyprus, to the highest value of 4.42 per million for emissions from Belgium. These results depend on the regional distribution of the population and the prevailing long-term meteorological conditions. Regarding Finnish primary PM 2.5 emissions, the iF was highest for traffic emissions (0.68 per million) and lowest for major power plant emissions (0.50 per million). The results provide new information that can be used to find the most cost-efficient emission abatement strategies and policies.

Similarities and differences in aneurysmal subarachnoid haemorrhage between eastern Finland and northern Sydney

A significant body of literature on aneurysmal subarachnoid haemorrhage has emerged from Finland. The Finnish source from a small founding population, rather than from a wide heterogeneous source such as used for other populations, suggests the need for caution when attempting to generalise using Finnish data. This study aims to identify the differences and similarities between the aneurysmal subarachnoid haemorrhage populations of eastern Finland and northern Sydney to ascertain whether information that is derived from Finland has applicability to an Australian context. Existing aneurysmal subarachnoid haemorrhage databases of Kuopio University Hospital in eastern Finland and the Royal North Shore and Dalcross Private Hospitals in northern Sydney from 2000 to 2005 were combined and analysed. A total of 879 patients were identified. Comparisons fell into three categories: features that were similar between the two populations; those with apparent differences that may be explained by methods of data collection or referral patterns; and differences that probably represent a true difference between these populations. The differences suggest that genetic predispositions for aneurysm development may not affect the likelihood for aneurysmal rupture.

A functional polymorphism in the MAOA gene promoter (MAOA-LPR) predicts central dopamine function and body mass index

Variation in brain monoaminergic activity is heritable and modulates risk of alcoholism and other addictions, as well as food intake and energy expenditure. Monoamine oxidase A deaminates the monoamine neurotransmitters serotonin, dopamine (DA), and noradrenaline. The monoamine oxidase A (MAOA) gene (Xp11.5) contains a length polymorphism in its promoter region (MAOA-LPR) that putatively affects transcriptional efficiency. Our goals were to test (1) whether MAOA-LPR contributes to interindividual variation in monoamine activity, assessed using levels of cerebrospinal fluid (CSF) monoamine metabolites; and (2) whether MAOA-LPR genotype influences alcoholism and/or body mass index (BMI). Male, unrelated criminal alcoholics (N=278) and controls (N=227) were collected from a homogeneous Finnish source population. CSF concentration of 5-hydroxyindoleacetic acid (5-HIAA), homovanillic acid (HVA), and 3-methoxy-4-hydroxyphenylglycol (MHPG) were available from 208 participants. Single allele, hemizygous genotypes were grouped according to inferred effect of the MAOA alleles on transcriptional activity. MAOA-LPR genotypes had a significant effect on CSF HVA concentration (P=0.01) but explained only 3% of the total variance. There was a detectable but nonsignificant genotype effect on 5-HIAA and no effects on MHPG. Specifically, the genotype conferring high MAOA activity was associated with lower HVA levels in both alcoholics and controls, a finding that persisted after accounting for the potential confounds of alcoholism, BMI, height, and smoking. MAOA-LPR genotype predicted BMI (P<0.005), with the high-activity genotype being associated with lower BMI. MAOA-LPR genotypes were not associated with alcoholism or related psychiatric phenotypes in this data set. Our results suggest that MAOA-LPR allelic variation modulates DA turnover in the CNS, but does so in a manner contrary to our prior expectation that alleles conferring high activity would predict higher HVA levels in CSF. Our results are consistent with an emerging literature that suggests greater complexity in how variation in MAOA expression alters monoaminergic function. Finally, our work suggests that MAOA may be involved in the regulation of BMI. Independent samples are necessary to confirm this preliminary finding.

A study on automatic creation of a comparable document collection in cross‐language information retrieval

Purpose – To present a method for creating a comparable document collection from two document collections in different languages.Design/methodology/approach – The best query keys were extracted from a Finnish source collection (articles of the newspaper Aamulehti) with the relative average term frequency formula. The keys were translated into English with a dictionary‐based query translation program. The resulting lists of words were used as queries that were run against the target collection (Los Angeles Times articles) with the nearest neighbor method. The documents were aligned with unrestricted and date‐restricted alignment schemes, which were also combined.Findings – The combined alignment scheme was found the best, when the relatedness of the document pairs was assessed with a five‐degree relevance scale. Of the 400 document pairs, roughly 40 percent were highly or fairly related and 75 percent included at least lexical similarity.Research limitations/implications – The number of alignment pairs was...

Parallel Lives: The Sons of Denethor and the Sons of Telamon

Parallel Lives:The Sons of Denethor and the Sons of Telamon Miryam Librán-Moreno 1. The Nature of the Problem1 It is commonly said that Tolkien based most of his legendarium on Northern literature, favoring above all Anglo-Saxon, Old Norse, Germanic and Finnish sources. While it cannot be any serious scholar's purpose to contest the general truth of this assessment, the undeniably pervasive influence of Northern literature should not be allowed to drive out, on principle and without careful case-by-case examination, each and every possible competing source from other mythologies (Stevens 120-1). There is a great deal of Greek mythology assimilated and transformed within the legendarium, albeit unacknowledged.2 A Classical myth, so far overlooked, may have shaped the story of the last members of the Hurinionath, Boromir, Faramir, and Denethor their father. The overlooked story is the account of the Telamonian Ajax' fate, with the consequences it brought on his brother Teucer and their aged father Telamon. Consideration of this new paradigm might aid in understanding Tolkien's creative process by illuminating the nature and purpose of the changes between Tolkien's first drafts and the final, published version. A brief look at the lives of Ajax and Teucer, sons of Telamon, Lord of Salamis, follows here (Jebb ix-xxiii). Ajax was the favored son and legitimate heir, Teucer a bastard son by a war captive. Ajax and Teucer took part in the Trojan War on behalf of their fatherland, Salamis, and were greatly distinguished because of their courage and prowess. After Achilles' death, Ajax rescued his corpse from among a swarm of enemies intent on desecrating it, while Odysseus protected his back. The arms of Achilles were then given to Odysseus instead of Ajax, who went mad with anger, killing the herds of the Greeks, believing them to be the Greek leaders. Ajax then committed suicide. Teucer ensured that his brother received an honourable burial. Once the war ended, Teucer returned home, but he was banished by his father, who mistakenly thought that Teucer was responsible for the death of Ajax. Teucer went to Cyprus, where he founded the town of Salamis and ruled as king.3 Tolkien often depicted mythical father-son relationships in his work.4 His unfinished tale The Lost Road was based on the pattern of the repetition of a similar father-son relationship throughout myth and history.5 [End Page 15] This story contained the kernel of one of the central events in Tolkien's legendarium, the Drowning of Númenor, and justified much of his subsequent literary creation. The portrait par excellence of father-son relationships in The Lord of the Rings is precisely the backstory of Boromir, Faramir, and Denethor. The summary of the events given above, however bald, might still indicate part of the appeal that the story of the sons of Telamon would hold for Tolkien: a favored but deeply flawed son (Ajax), his worthier but overlooked brother (Teucer), and the aging, irate, stern father (Telamon) who blamed the youngest for the death of the eldest. 2. Points of Comparison Between the Sons of Denethor and the Sons of Telamon 2.1. Ajax and Boromir I will divide this section in three parts: external traits, psychological traits, and an analysis of Boromir's madness in light of the Greek epic convention of double motivation. 2.1.1. External traits (Jebb ix-xvii, Garvie, 1-2). Ajax and Boromir are both the eldest and most beloved sons of their powerful fathers, Telamon Lord of Salamis and Denethor Lord of Minas Tirith.6 Both characters are explicitly characterized as rash, bold, forward persons who delight in war for war's sake.7 Both the Telamonian and the son of Denethor are repeatedly described as "enormous" in size, head and shoulders above the rest, their strength, physical beauty and size constantly highlighted in the narrative.8 Ajax' stock epithet is , traditionally translated as "bulwark of the Achaeans," a qualification Boromir shares with Gondor in general.9 Boromir's and Ajax' characteristic and distinctive equipment is a shield, as opposed to their brothers' bows.10 Despite their eagerness for and joy in battle, both characters are...

The Enemy within: Homicide and Control in Eastern Finland in the Final Years of Swedish Rule 1748-1808 by Anu s&gt; Koskivirta (review)

I38 SEER, 83, I, 2005 Forthose who believe that an analysisof Russiancivil-militaryrelationships will help forecastwhat will happen, say, in Nigeria, thisbook is clearlya must. For other readers, and particularlyperhaps historians, this is a book ideally kept within easy reach, for its narrativesare good, its perspectivesengaging, and itsjudgments well-informed. Centrefor Russian andEastEuropean Studies J. N. WESTWOOD University ofBirmingham Koskivirta,Anu. TheEnemyWithin: Homicide andControl inEastern Finlandinthe FinalYears ofSwedish RuleI748-I808. StudiaFennica:Historica5. Finnish Literature Society, Helsinki, 2003. 2I7 pp. Tables. Maps. References. Bibliography.Index. ?3 I.00 (paperback). THE subject of homicide has been the subject of intense scrutinyby Nordic historians over the past three decades, and Anu Koskivirta's study of the frontierregion of Northern Savo and Northern Karelia is not only a valuable addition to the literature, but also an interesting measure of how the theoreticaland methodological assumptionshave changed. In his pioneering study of violent crime in southern Ostrobothnia between I790 and i825, publishednearlythirtyyearsago and now availablein an Englishedition (7The Knife Fighters, Helsinki, I998), HeikkiYlikangasdrew almost exclusivelyupon Finnish sources, with the sociologist Veli Verkko'sstudies of violent crime as his main theoretical point of reference. By contrast, Koskivirtais extremely well-readin the internationalliteratureon the subject,and is able to measure her case study against a wide range of theories. She is inclined to accept the thesis that violence tends to be more prevalent in frontierregions, especially when supplemented by the threat of an external enemy, though she also stresses the significance of what the long-serving Crown Bailiff of Karelia, GabrielWallenius,termed 'the enemy within';the propensityof the frontiersmen to attack their own people whenever war broke out. This was compounded by the absence of strong or respected authority in the region. Koskivirta displays considerable forensic skills in unravelling the circumstancesof a particularlytragiccase in which the local barber-surgeon who was responsiblefor conducting autopsies attackedhis children, killingtwo of them, before ending his own life. In her search of the bulky court records, she reveals a sad state of local incompetence, corruption and malpractice which, even if thiswere not the main cause of violent behaviourin the region, certainly undermined confidence in the justice of the administration. The main thrustof her argumentis found in her chapterswhich considerhomicide as a form of punitive control, and as an extension of conciliatory control. Drawing upon the theory developed by American sociologist Donald Black that takingthe law into one's own hands may be a form of social control, she concludes that, in the collective agrarianculture of eastern Finland, murder was often a means of maintaining the community's conservative power relations and was as suchjustified by those accused of the crime. One of the most strikingfeatures of violent crime in this region is the high incidence of fratricide;in one in ten of the trials for homicide in Northern Karelia, the REVIEWS I39 victim was a brother of the accused. A rapidly rising population, a growing shortage of land to farm, and tensions occasioned by fraternalconflicts over the division of responsibilitieswithin the extended family that was characteristic of the region are seen as the main causes for the high level of fratricide, and other inter-familialviolence. Koskivirtaconcludes that 'when the growth in the number of farms and farming partners reaches its final bounds, the price of a family model that guaranteed a flexible division of resourceswas fratricide',which suggestsan element of calculationnot entirelysupportedby the evidence. Like Ylikangas,she places great importance on the fact that a conviction requiredthe concurringtestimoniesof two competent eyewitnesses or the confession of the accused; the unwillingnessof the accused to confess and the frequentlackof eyewitnessesmeant that manypatentlyguiltypersons escaped punishment. Weakcontrol and the lack of penal certaintyultimately led to crimes inspiredby self-interest;contractkillings,for example, of which a number are described in detail here. Koskivirtahas the uncommon ability of being able to blend theoreticalanalysisand narrative;her summariesof the cases brought to court are riveting reading, but they also buttress her arguments. The one major reservation would be that she does not really succeed in explainingsatisfactorilythe significantdifferencein homicide rates within eastern Finland. One would also like to have known more about possible religiousor ethnic tensions in mixed communities such as Ilomantsi, where the homicide rate per year per IOO,OOO inhabitantsduring...

Identifying England's Lonnrot

Tolkien’s fascination with the Finnish national epic, Kalevala, created by nineteenth-century physician and folklorist Elias Lonnrot, is well recognized. Anyone who has read his collected letters knows this. In 1914, he wrote the following to his fiance Edith Bratt: “Had an interesting talk with that quaint man Earp I have told you of and introduced him (to his great delight) to the ‘Kalevala,’ the Finnish ballads. Amongst other work I am trying to turn one of the stories—which is really a very great story and most tragic—into a short story somewhat on the lines of Morris’ romances with chunks of poetry in between” (Letters 7). Fifty years later he was still fascinated, as he revealed in a 1964 letter to Christopher Bretherton: “The germ of my attempt to write legends of my own to fit my private languages was the tragic tale of the hapless Kullervo in the Finnish Kalevala. It remains a major matter in the legends of the First Age (which I hope to publish as The Silmarillion), though as ‘The Children of Hurin’ it is entirely changed except in the tragic ending” (345). That fascination went further and deeper than the single story idea of the hapless Kullervo, as I intend to show in this study. The attractiveness of the Kalevala, according to Michael Branch, in A History of Finland’s Literature, “lies in the grandeur and universality of its themes, the coherence of its plots, and the splendor of its poetry” (4), qualities that kept Tolkien engaged with the material for many years of his life. Humphrey Carpenter, Tolkien’s official biographer, dates Tolkien’s first encounter with the Kalevala around 1911 during his final term at St. Edward’s School, shortly before his enrollment at Oxford. According to Carpenter, “He wrote appreciatively of ‘this strange people and these new gods, this race of unhypocritical lowbrow scandalous heroes,’ adding ‘the more I read of it, the more I felt at home and enjoyed myself.’ He had discovered the Kalevala in W. H. Kirby’s Everyman translation, and he determined to find an edition in the original Finnish as soon as possible” (57). Thus began Tolkien’s long-term association with this Finnish source that would surface in his own work as both content (the Silmarils, and various treatments of Turin Turambar) and form (the sprawling collection of myths, tales, annals, poems, and chronicles of the Silmarillion proper, as well as Quenya, the Elvish language inspired by Finnish). In casting his vast world of Middle-earth as England’s pre-history, transmitted from fictional sources (Elves of Tol Eressea) to historical

The Black Gentleman: Manifestations of the Devil in Estonian Folk Religion by Ülo s&gt; Valk (review)

I20 SEER, 8i, I, 2003 are given about the dedicatee; recordings are indicated by the names of the singers in them; and, finally, the singers in recordings of other composers' settingsmay alsobe given. Clearly, Richard Sylvester has a good understanding of the problems of settingwordsto music and a greataffectionfor these songs,which rangefrom the unknownto theverypopular.His shortintroductoryessayson each setting often highlight the difficultieswhich Chaikovskiimight have encountered, as well as questions of the songs'performance.They offersome untechnical but thoughtful analysisof the musical form and procedures of the song, drawing particularattentionto changes made to the textsby the composerandpossible reasons for them. Also raised are questions relating to the plain translations, for instance, the awkwardlybisexual word drug(in the transliterationhere, druk). There are many recordings of Chaikovskii'sromances on the market,but the twenty-two represented on the disc which accompanies this book have clearly been selected with care, mainly from outstanding recordings of the 1940S and I950S, including such gems as Leonid Sobinov's 'Sred'shumnogo bala', Nadezhda Obukhova's 'Ni slova, o drug moi' and best of all, Sergei Lemeshev's 'Korol'ki'. Many of these fascinating recordings are simply unavailable on commercial compact disc and represent collector's items in other formats. Their inclusion makes a very welcome bonus and reflectsthe care and finejudgment found in the book itself. ProfessorSylvesterhopes that his user-friendlycompanion 'will provide a basisfor furtherstudyof [Chaikovskii's]songs as musicalcompositions'.In its coverage of many lesswell known songs, aswell as favourites,it shouldindeed offer a valuable source for musically minded Slavists and, particularly, perhaps,forsingerswithoutRussianwho wishto explorewith expertguidance a central part of the rich Russian vocal repertoire. This splendid crossdisciplinarypublicationdeservesto be purchasednot only by singers,scholars and university libraries, but also by all but the most unenterprisingpublic libraries. A companion volume devoted to the songs of Rakhmaninov is, apparently,in preparation.It will be eagerlyawaited. School ofSlavonic andEastEuropean Studies ARNOLD MCMILLIN University College London Valk,Ulo. 7The BlackGentleman. Manifestations oftheDevilinEstonian FolkReligion. Folklore Fellows Communications, 276. Suomalainen Tiedeakatemia, Academia Scientiarum Fennica, Helsinki, 2001. X+ 2I7 pp. Notes. Appendices. Bibliography.Priceunknown. THEmajorityof studieson the devil have been writtenalmostexclusivelyfrom a mono-disciplinaryperspective, which has resulted in a disparatecollection of monographs by historians, anthropologists, theologians, sociologists, and ethnologists, who have placed the figure of the devil within their own particularcontexts and chronologies. In TheBlackGentleman: Manifestations of theDevil in EstonianFolkReligion,Ulo Valk controversially weaves together descriptions of the devil from Estonian nineteenth- and twentieth-century REVIEWS 12 I folklore,earlymodern demonography, and confessionsfound in seventeenthcenturytrialsforwitchcraftto presentan interdisciplinarycomparativestudy. The Estonian material is contrasted with similar Lithuanian, Russian, and Finnish sources, whilst Stith Thompson's Motif-Indexof Folk Literature. A Classification of Narrative Elementsin Folktales, Ballads,Myths,Fables,Medieval Romances, Exempla, Fabliaux,_est-Books andLocal Legends (vols I-6, Copenhagen, I955-58) providesthe backgroundthroughwhich to introduce a wider range of European and American material. This book is a 'slightlyrevisedversion' (p. ix) of Valk'sdoctoraldissertation and was published in Estonian in I998. He argues effectively for locating Estonia's tradition of the devil within the West European context of demonology and folklore,proving that it is genetically part of the European Christian tradition. 'Since the devil essentially belongs to Christianity, the Finno-Ugric backgroundand parallelswith kindredpeoples are of secondary or even tertiary importance', asserts Valk (p. I8), by-passing an argument which would have benefited more from a better exegesis of this theory than from comparisons with Indian and twentieth-century American examples. However, thisreflectsValk'sexpertisein folklore,literature,Indology, and the Estonian witchcraftpersecution, which has proved to be both a strengthand a weakness. Opinions differas to the wisdom of basing comparisonson such an interdisciplinary and broad chronological basis. The result is a widerangingsurveythat findsthe readerswiftlymoving between the earlymodern period, and the nineteenth or twentieth centuries, which can be rather disconcerting.The benefit of this type of approachis that the book appealsto a muchwideraudience, andlinguists,historians,anthropologists,ethnologists, and folkloristswill allfindsomething of interest. Statisticaltables based on I723 texts detail how the devil was reported to have manifestedhimselfas a man, a noble lady, a clergyman,an elk, a pike, a hayrick, or even a needle without an eye, according to legend, memories, confessions in witchcraft trials, and various belief systems. This empirical approach allows...

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