Finnish Farms Research Articles

First molecular detection of Brachyspira hampsonii on pig farms in Poland.

Nowadays, the three strongly beta-haemolytic spirochaetes, Brachyspira hyodysenteriae, Brachyspira suanatina and Brachyspira hampsonii are thought to be causative agents of swine dysentery, an economically devastating disease of grow-finish pigs characterised by severe mucohaemorrhagic diarrhoea. B. hyodysenteriae has been reported in most leading swine-producing regions. B. suanatina and B. hampsonii have been successfully recovered from faecal samples collected in a few countries only. Thepresent study was performed in March 2023 on faecal samples originating from nine Polish finisher farms with 6,000 to 18,000 animals in a location. Samples were obtained from 40 diarrhoeic finishers. Nucleic acid extracted from the samples was analysed using multiplex PCR for Brachyspira spp. From a total of nine sample populations examined in our study, the genetic material of B. hampsonii was identified in two. To the best of our knowledge, this is the first report on molecular detection of B. hampsonii on pig farms outside North America, Belgium and Germany. Our research highlights the need for increased focus directed on laboratory testing strategies, the lack of which may perplex swine practitioners and severely hinder a definite diagnosis.

An Integrated Analysis of Abattoir Lung Lesion Scores and Antimicrobial Use in Italian Heavy Pig Finishing Farms.

Respiratory diseases significantly affect intensive pig finishing farms, causing production losses and increased antimicrobial use (AMU). Lesion scoring at slaughter has been recognized as a beneficial practice to evaluate herd management. The integrated analysis of abattoir lesion scores and AMU data could improve decision-making by providing feedback to veterinarians and farmers on the effectiveness of antimicrobial treatments, thus rationalizing their use. This study compared lung and pleural lesion scores collected at Italian pig slaughterhouses with on-farm AMU, estimated through a treatment index per 100 days (TI100). Overall, 24,752 pig carcasses, belonging to 236 batches from 113 finishing farms, were inspected. Bronchopneumonia and chronic pleuritis were detected in 55% and 48% of the examined pigs, respectively. Antimicrobials were administered in 97% of the farms during the six months prior to slaughter (median TI100 = 5.2), notwithstanding compliance with the mandatory withdrawal period. EMA category B (critical) antimicrobials were administered in 15.2% of cases (median TI100 = 0.06). The lung score was not associated with the total AMU, but significant, positive associations were found with the past use of critical antimicrobials (p = 0.041) and macrolides (p = 0.044). This result highlights the potential of abattoir lung lesion monitoring to rationalize antimicrobial stewardship efforts, contributing to AMU reduction.

Gastric ulcers in finishing pigs: the evaluation of selected non-dietary risk factors and impact on production performance

BackgroundThe complex aetiology of gastric lesions in pigs remains largely unknown and effective preventive measures and pharmaceutical treatment of the disease have not been developed yet. Regardless of the fact that the overwhelming majority of previous research works dealing with gastric ulceration in pigs focused on the role of the nutritional determinants, including chemical composition of feeds, cereal type, finely ground pelleted diets, and feed additives, conclusions presented therein remain highly ambiguous. Thus, the purpose of this study was to evaluate the impact of the disease on production performance, and investigate the influence of selected non-dietary risk factors on the prevalence of gastric alterations in finishing pigs reared under conditions of 11 modern farms located in Poland.ResultsA total number of 26,043 finishing pigs was examined. 15,228 (58.47%) had gastric ulcers. Intact stomachs were detected in 6176 animals (23.71%). Parakeratosis and erosion were observed in 2551 (9.80%) and 2088 (8.02%), respectively. Among eight continuous variables two were found to be significantly associated with prevalence of the gastric ulcer: the growing number of animals in the herd, which was negatively correlated (P = 0.002; ρ = -0.37), and the growing average entry weight of animals transported to the finisher farm (P = 0.047; ρ = 0.24), which increased the risk of gastric ulcers prevalence. Among 12 nominal variables, problems with the quality of farm management (P = 0.041), and usage of straw as a bedding material (P = 0.002) were identified as determinants significantly associated with occurrence of the analysed health problem.ConclusionsAmong 20 non-nutritional variables analysed in our study only few factors were found to be associated with the prevalence of the disease. The impact of broadly understood management issues on gastric health in finishing pigs deserves further research.

Fires and fire risk perception predictors on Finnish farms

ABSTRACT The physical and operational farm environment has become more complex, challenging risk management. This study aimed to identify the number and typical features of farm fires and the factors connected to farmers’ assessments of fire risk. The data comprised a subset extracted from the national accident database of the Finnish rescue services from 2000 to 2021 (3,989 farm fire alarm calls) and farm survey data collected in the spring of 2021 (506 valid responses). The descriptive analysis of the fire incident data showed that the most typical fire sites on farms were dairy cattle buildings, grain dryers, and heating plants. Most farmers (83.4%) assessed the probability of fire as intermediate or high. The Bayesian machine learning approach used to analyse the survey data suggested the control of malfunctions, failures of machinery and equipment, and educational efforts were key elements in fire risk management.

Estimating the effectiveness of control actions on African swine fever transmission in commercial swine populations in the United States.

Given the proximity of African swine fever (ASF) to the U.S., there is an urgent need to better understand the possible dissemination pathways of the virus within the U.S. swine industry and to evaluate mitigation strategies. Here, we extended PigSpread, a farm-level spatially-explicit stochastic compartmental transmission model incorporating six transmission routes including between-farm swine movements, vehicle movements, and local spread, to model the dissemination of ASF. We then examined the effectiveness of control actions similar to the ASF national response plan. The average number of secondary infections during the first 60 days of the outbreak was 49 finisher farms, 17 nursery farms, 5 sow farms, and less than one farm in other production types. The between-farm movements of swine were the predominant route of ASF transmission with an average contribution of 71.1%, while local spread and movement of vehicles were less critical with average contributions of 14.6% and 14.4%. We demonstrated that the combination of quarantine, depopulation, movement restrictions, contact tracing, and enhanced surveillance, was the most effective mitigation strategy, resulting in an average reduction of 79.0% of secondary cases by day 140 of the outbreak. Implementing these control actions led to a median of 495,619 depopulated animals, 357,789 diagnostic tests, and 54,522 movement permits. Our results suggest that the successful elimination of an ASF outbreak is likely to require the deployment of all control actions listed in the ASF national response plan for more than 140 days, as well as estimating the resources needed for depopulation, testing, and movement permits under these controls.

What makes a change? Understanding the renewal process of barley cultivars on Finnish farms

The potential to adapt to climate change varies depending on the crop and is considered low especially for barley (Hordeum vulgare L.) in Europe. Barley is the most widely cultivated crop in Finland, grown in a wide range of climatic and edaphic conditions. Access to a large and diverse assortment of locally well adapted, climate-resilient barley cultivars is the premise for successful cultivation. Barley has plenty of cultivar choices in Finland. However, cultivar switch is “a hidden process,” and in this study, we therefore aimed: 1) to increase understanding of farmers’ cultivar renewal process; 2) to study how yield and growing time of new cultivars have changed when farmers switched cultivars; and 3) to describe how farms with willingness to change cultivars differ from those reluctant to make a change. The renewal interval of barley cultivars is long: The cultivars grown in 2018 were usually introduced to the Official Variety Trials as early as 2008–2012. The median age difference between replaced and new cultivars was seven years. The probability of switching cultivars was systematically higher on larger farms and farms with a large cereal area. New cultivars were allocated primarily to high-yielding field parcels owned by a farmer. Farmers aspired for an increased yield potential, but this did not necessarily entail a shift to later maturity. We found strong spatial dependency in cultivar renewal if the distance between the neighboring farms was < 5 km. The direction of the change was not only toward new breeds as long as the cultivar was high yielding. When returning to an older cultivar, it was likely that the new breed did not meet the farmer’s expectations, or that the growing season was exceptionally challenging.

Changes in swine ammonia emissions associated with improved production management.

Swine manure management and storage have been implicated as major sources of increasing agricultural ammonia (NH3 ) emissions resulting in increased ammonium deposition in North Carolina. This study was conducted to establish how improvements in manure and animal management have affected lagoon nutrient loading and subsequent NH3 emissions determined from measured lagoon chemistry and climate data. Archived lagoon chemistry analyses from 182 farm lagoons (106,000 sample analyses) were used to evaluate trends in lagoon chemical properties. Process and empirical (statistical) NH3 volatilization models were used with the data to calculate changes in NH3 emissions from 2001 through 2018. Lagoon nutrient trends for finisher and sow farms showed that annual averages of nutrients had decreases ranging from 18 to 93%, except for a 41% increase in copper for finisher primary lagoons. Because of reduced nitrogen and pH in the lagoons, a process model of NH3 emissions suggested decreases from primary lagoons of 49 and 25% from finisher and sow farm lagoons, respectively. Empirical (statistical) models predicted even larger relative NH3 decreases (up to 54%).

‘I don’t fertilise quite like that’: Mediating and distancing capacities of nutrient records at Finnish farms

Farmers are increasingly required to record the actions taken and incidents occurring at farms. They are also expected to use the records to prove that animal welfare and environmental regulations are being followed. Yet, research suggests that record keeping disturbs, rather than supports, farming practices. The policy benefits are also suspected to be scarce. In this paper, we argue that the potential of records to act as useful calculative resources has been overlooked. The Finnish case study shows that recording nutrient use can allow fertilisation practices to be guided by water protection concerns. However, on some farms the requirement to keep nutrient records has been responded in ways that draws a distance between farms and regulatory control. The alignment of farm life and the recording requirements has followed different trajectories from one farm to another. Some farmers contest the science behind the fertilisation limits. Farms may also be poorly equipped to live with the limits that the records make visible. Optimal fertilisation then ceases to be an issue that can be solved by additional calculative support. Instead, record keeping indicates political divisions.

Come Out of a Hiding Place: How Are Cover Crops Allocated on Finnish Farms?

Cover crops (CCs) may provide many ecosystem services for crop production systems, and interest has increased in the cultivation of CCs among Finnish farmers. Piloting farmers applied for agricultural payments to support the cultivation of CCs (AP-CCs) in 2020. Novel data with a total of 34,515 field parcels with CCs from 5747 farms was used to assess how farmers allocated CCs depending on farm and parcel characteristics. Pioneering farmers often had conventional, large farms with cereal areas exceeding 25%, and expertise with special crop(s). Conventional farmers seemed to allocate CCs to large parcels. The allocation of CCs was not solely dictated by cash crops. Cover crops were planted more frequently in parcels close to waterways. Conventional farmers allocated CCs to parcels with a history of highly monotonous cereal sequencing. Hence, farmers seem to benefit from ecosystem services provided by CCs: increasing spatial diversity, reducing the environmental footprint, and improving soil health. This novel understanding is used to support the implementation of CCs beyond pilot farms and to develop a decision support system for their allocation. The ultimate goal is to support a transition towards more sustainable crop production systems with currently underutilized CCs in high-latitude conditions.

A Molecular and Epidemiological Description of a Severe Porcine Reproductive and Respiratory Syndrome Outbreak in a Commercial Swine Production System in Russia.

Porcine reproductive and respiratory syndrome (PRRS) is an economically devastating disease of swine in many parts of the world. Porcine reproductive and respiratory syndrome virus (PRRSV) type 1 is endemic in Europe, and prevalence of the subtypes differ spatially. In this study, we investigated a severe PRRS outbreak reported in 30 farms located in eastern Russia that belong to a large swine production company in the region that was also experiencing a pseudorabies outbreak in the system. Data included 28 ORF5 sequences from samples across 18 of the 25 infected sites, reverse transcriptase real-time polymerase chain reaction (RT-qPCR) results from diagnostic testing, reports of clinical signs, and animal movement records. We observed that the outbreak was due to two distinct variants of wildtype PRRSV type 1 subtype 1 with an average genetic distance of 15%. Results suggest that the wildtype PRRSV variants were introduced into the region around 2019, before affecting this production system (i.e., sow farms, nurseries, and finisher farms). Clinical signs did not differ between the variants, but they did differ by stage of pig production. Biosecurity lapses, including movement of animals from infected farms contributed to disease spread.

Farm characteristics affecting antibiotic consumption in pig farms in England

BackgroundPig production has been highlighted as one of the highest users of antibiotics amongst livestock, with several studies suggesting a variety of approaches to antibiotic reduction. We aimed to investigate links between antibiotic use (defined as total amount of critically (CIA) and non-critically important antibiotics, and as mg per kg of pig on farm), production stages present on farm (Breeder–Finisher, Nursery–Finisher, and Finisher), and pig farm characteristics using farm data collected through national recording systems in Great Britain for 2017 & 2018. Providing enrichment within pig pens may reduce the need for antibiotics by enhancing both pig welfare and resilience to infection; this was one of the hypotheses addressed by this paper.ResultsThe amount of antibiotic used, expressed as mg/kg, reduced between 2017 and 2018 for Breeder–Finisher farms, but not for Nursery–Finisher or Finisher farms. Breeder–Finisher farms were more likely to use CIA compared with other production stages. Larger farms were more likely to use CIA, but farm size had no effect on mg/kg of antibiotic used. As the proportion of pens containing straw increased, the total use of antibiotics decreased for Breeder–Finisher, but not for Nursery–Finisher or Finisher farms. As the proportion of pens containing straw increased, the probability of using CIAs also decreased. Farms with a higher proportion of finisher pens with an outdoor space had a lower use of non-critical antibiotics and lower probability of use of CIA. Farms with a higher proportion of pens with automatically controlled natural ventilation (ACNV) had lower total use of antibiotics, although ACNV had no effect on the probability of using CIA.ConclusionsWe quantified the influence of farm characteristics on the consumption of antibiotics in pig farms in England. Our findings support the hypothesis that farm characteristics have an influence on antibiotic use within a system and suggest that this reflects the balance of effects on both animal resilience and disease challenge. Consistent with our hypothesis, provision of straw was associated with reduced antibiotic use. We also demonstrate the value of using secondary databases, although further structural improvements are required to facilitate effective database combination and ensure maximum information benefits can be realised.

Emissions of H2S from Hog Finisher Farm Anaerobic Manure Treatment Lagoons: Physical, Chemical and Biological Influence

Hydrogen sulfide (H2S) from hog operations contributes to noxious odors in the surrounding environment and can be life-threatening. There is, however, limited understanding of what influences H2S emissions from these farms. Emissions of H2S were measured periodically over the course of two years at hog finisher farms in humid mesothermal (North Carolina, NC, USA) and semi-arid (Oklahoma, OK, USA) climates. Emissions were determined using an inverse dispersion backward Lagrangian stochastic model in conjunction with line-sampled H2S concentrations and measured turbulence. Daily emissions at the two lagoons were characterized by low emissions on most days with occasional days of high emissions. Mean annual area-specific emissions were much lower for the NC lagoon (1.32 µg H2S m−2 s−1 ± 0.07 µg H2S m−2 s−1) than the OK lagoon (6.88 µg H2S m−2 s−1 ± 0.13 µg H2S m−2 s−1). Mean annual hog-specific emissions for the NC lagoon were 0.75 g H2S hd−1 d−1 while those for the OK lagoon were 1.92 g H2S hd−1 d−1. Emissions tended to be higher during the afternoon, likely due to higher mean winds. Daily H2S emissions from both lagoons were greatest during the first half of the year and decreased as the year progressed and a reddish color (indicating high populations of purple sulfur bacteria (PSB)) appeared in the lagoon. The generally low emissions at the NC lagoon and higher emissions at the OK lagoon were likely a result of the influence of wind on mixing the lagoon and not the presence of PSB.

How farmers approach soil carbon sequestration? Lessons learned from 105 carbon-farming plans

Soil carbon sequestration is a recognized climate mitigation method, but it involves changes in the practices of more than 0.5 billion farms worldwide. Regionally customized carbon-farming programs are one way to tailor soil carbon storage to local conditions. We conducted farmer participatory research on 105 Finnish farms to investigate how farmers approach carbon (C) sequestration. We conducted training for farmers in the basics of carbon-farming and instructed them to make a Carbon Farming Plan for one of their fields. The plans were evaluated by a team of experts and through soil C balance calculations. In addition, potential nutrient limitations and the existing C stock were identified from soil tests. Although the existing C stocks were relatively high, an assessment of the plans indicated high potential for additional C storage (median 320 kg C ha−1year−1). The plans did not show any sensitivity to the existing C stock, with similar C inputs planned for low organic matter (OM) and high OM soils. The farmers either did not know their C stock or were not familiar with the C balance concept. Most soil samples showed considerable nutrient deficiencies (P, S, B and Mn), which can limit C storage. The quality of most plans was adequate for research with minor modifications. The largest C storage potential was estimated for measures with large additions of nutrient-poor amendments or in grazing. Most farmers chose measures with relatively low C storage benefits but high potential benefits for soil structure and productivity (cover crops, nutrient-rich amendments, grassland management). The C gain from some measures (subsoiling, diversity in grasslands) could not be estimated with current methodologies. The magnitude of planned C storage over 5 years on most farms was so small (<0.5% OM), that it is challenging to measure it through soil sampling. This finding supports the earlier conclusions that a combination of modeling and soil sampling is needed to verify the C storage.

Temporal stability of swine movement networks in the U.S.

As a consequence of multi-site pig production practiced in North America, frequent and widespread animal movements create extensive networks of interaction between farms. Social network analysis (SNA) has been used to understand disease transmission risks within these complex and dynamic production ecosystems and is particularly relevant for designing risk-based surveillance and control strategies targeting highly connected farms. However, inferences from SNA and the effectiveness of targeted strategies may be influenced by temporal changes in network structure. Since farm movements represent a temporally dynamic network, it is also unclear how many months of data are required to gain an accurate picture of an individual farm’s connectivity pattern and the overall network structure. The extent to which shipments between two specific farms are repeated (i.e., “loyalty” of farm contacts) can influence the rate at which the structure of a network changes over time, which may influence disease dynamics. In this study, we aimed to describe temporal stability and loyalty patterns of pig movement networks in the U.S. swine industry.We analyzed a total of 282,807 animal movements among 2724 farms belonging to two production systems between 2014 and 2017. Loyalty trends were largely driven by contacts between sow farms and nurseries and between nurseries and finisher farms; mean loyalty (percent of contacts that were repeated at least once within a 52-week interval) of farm contacts was 51–60 % for farm contacts involving weaned pigs, and 12–22% for contacts involving feeder pigs. A cyclic pattern was observed for both weaned and feeder pig movements, with episodes of increased loyalty observed at intervals of 8 and 17–20 weeks, respectively. Network stability was achieved when six months of data were aggregated, and only small shifts in node-level and global network metrics were observed when adding more data. This stability is relevant for designing targeted surveillance programs for disease management, given that movements summarized over too short a period may lead to stochastic swings in network metrics. A temporal resolution of six months would be reliable for the identification of potential super-spreaders in a network for targeted intervention and disease control. The temporal stability observed in these networks suggests that identifying highly connected farms in retrospective network data (up to 24 months) is reliable for future planning, albeit with reduced effectiveness.

Modelling the transmission and vaccination strategy for porcine reproductive and respiratory syndrome virus.

Many aspects of the porcine reproductive and respiratory syndrome virus (PRRSV) between-farm transmission dynamics have been investigated, but uncertainty remains about the significance of farm type and different transmission routes on PRRSV spread. We developed a stochastic epidemiological model calibrated on weekly PRRSV outbreaks accounting for the population dynamics in different pig production phases, breeding herds, gilt development units, nurseries and finisher farms, of three hog producer companies. Our model accounted for indirect contacts by the close distance between farms (local transmission), between-farm animal movements (pig flow) and reinfection of sow farms (re-break). The fitted model was used to examine the effectiveness of vaccination strategies and complementary interventions such as enhanced PRRSV detection and vaccination delays and forecast the spatial distribution of PRRSV outbreak. The results of our analysis indicated that for sow farms, 59% of the simulated infections were related to local transmission (e.g. airborne, feed deliveries, shared equipment) whereas 36% and 5% were related to animal movements and re-break, respectively. For nursery farms, 80% of infections were related to animal movements and 20% to local transmission; while at finisher farms, it was split between local transmission and animal movements. Assuming that the current vaccines are 1% effective in mitigating between-farm PRRSV transmission, weaned pigs vaccination would reduce the incidence of PRRSV outbreaks by 3%, indeed under any scenario vaccination alone was insufficient for completely controlling PRRSV spread. Our results also showed that intensifying PRRSV detection and/or vaccination pigs at placement increased the effectiveness of all simulated vaccination strategies. Our model reproduced the incidence and PRRSV spatial distribution; therefore, this model could also be used to map current and future farms at-risk. Finally, this model could be a useful tool for veterinarians, allowing them to identify the effect of transmission routes and different vaccination interventions to control PRRSV spread.

The resilience of Finnish farms: Exploring the interplay between agency and structure

Abstract Resilience implies, in its essence, the capacity of a system to tolerate disturbances while retaining its essential functions. In the context of agriculture, resilience thinking calls for considering the ability of farms to thrive in turbulent times along with the ability of the ecological system – in which the agricultural production is embedded – to retain its function and integrity. Resilience is a relevant conceptual tool to analyse the contradictory management demands that farms are facing within the current neoliberal market regime: being economically viable and environmentally sustainable. In this study, the resilience of farms was operationalised through farmers' perceptions concerning their farms' development trajectories in these two dimensions. The operationalisation strategy applied to farm survey data from Finland suggested that the majority of Finnish farms were vulnerable in either or both of these dimensions. The resilient farms were characterised by large size, development orientation, possession of social capital and adoption of targeted agri-environmental measures. The agrifood system was characterised by increasing level of centralisation and connectedness affecting all systemic levels, including the farm systems. Resilience can be seen as a manifestation of a self-reinforcing virtuous cycle, in which both the farm structure and the farmer's agency are well aligned with the contemporary context, whereas vulnerability is the result of a similar, but vicious cycle.

Bovine cysticercosis outbreak in an indoor beef finisher farm in the North of England

Bovine cysticercosis is a parasitic infection of cattle caused by the human tapeworm Taenia saginata. Bovine cysticercosis was identified by meat inspection in 4.7 per cent (18 out of 380)...

Characterizing Antimicrobial Resistant Escherichia coli and Associated Risk Factors in a Cross-Sectional Study of Pig Farms in Great Britain.

Combatting antimicrobial resistant (AMR) using a One-Health approach is essential as various bacteria, including Escherichia coli, a common bacteria, are becoming increasingly resistant and livestock may be a reservoir. The AMR gene content of 492 E. coli, isolated from 56 pig farms across Great Britain in 2014–2015, and purified on antibiotic selective and non-selective plates, was determined using whole genome sequencing (WGS). The E. coli were phylogenetically diverse harboring a variety of AMR profiles with widespread resistance to “old” antibiotics; isolates harbored up to seven plasmid Inc-types. None showed concurrent resistance to third-generation cephalosporins, fluoroquinolones and clinically relevant aminoglycosides, although ∼3% harbored AMR genes to both the former two. Transferable resistance to carbapenem and colistin were absent, and six of 117 E. coli STs belonged to major types associated with human disease. Prevalence of genotypically MDR E. coli, gathered from non-selective media was 35% and that of extended-spectrum-beta-lactamase E. coli was low (∼2% from non-selective). Approximately 72.6% of E. coli from ciprofloxacin plates and only 8.5% from the other plates harbored fluoroquinolone resistance due to topoisomerase mutations; the majority were MDR. In fact, multivariable analysis confirmed E. coli purified from CIP enrichment plates were more likely to be MDR, and suggested MDR isolates were also more probable from farms with high antibiotic usage, specialist finisher farms, and farms emptying their manure pits only after each batch. Additionally, farms from the South East were more likely to have MDR E. coli, whereas farms in Yorkshire and the Humber were less likely. Future investigations will determine whether suggested improvements such as better biosecurity or lower antimicrobial use decreases MDR E. coli on pig farms. Although this study focuses on pig farms, we believe the methodology and findings can be applied more widely to help livestock farmers in the United Kingdom and elsewhere to tackle AMR.

Evaluation of Criminal Sanctions Concerning Violations of Cattle and Pig Welfare.

Simple SummaryAccording to EU legislation, violations involving farm animal welfare need to be sanctioned. With this study, our aim was to assess criminal sanctions by Finnish district courts concerning cattle and pig welfare crimes. We found that small cattle farms were over-represented in court statistics. The most common sanctioned violations of cattle and pig welfare were the lack of cleanliness of premises and animals and inadequate feeding and watering. The violations were shown to have been continuing for a long time before a defendant stood trial for their actions. The penalties were lenient, i.e., the violations were not perceived as particularly blameworthy by the court. Veterinarians have a major role in initiating criminal procedures, collecting evidence, and evaluating the relevance of violations. Therefore, to improve the efficacy of criminal procedures, the police and prosecutors should work in close collaboration with veterinarians.EU legislation requires the violations of animal welfare standards to be sanctioned. Our aim was to evaluate criminal sanctions concerning violations of cattle and pig welfare on Finnish farms. We analyzed 196 court cases heard in Finnish district courts from 2011 to 2016. Almost all the cases (95%) concerned the violations of cattle welfare, of which 61% occurred on small farms. The lack of cleanliness and inadequate feeding and watering were the most common reported violations. Median time span from the start date of an offending to a judgement was slightly less than two years. Of the cases, 96% resulted in conviction. The court did not perceive the violations as being highly blameworthy as a small fine and a short conditional imprisonment were the most often imposed sanctions. A ban on the keeping of animals was used as a precautionary measure in half of the cases. Veterinarians were shown to have an important role in the initiation of criminal procedures, providing evidence for the police, and acting as witnesses. Therefore, it is crucial to achieve a well-functioning collaboration between veterinarians and the police and prosecutors. The expertise of these authorities on animal welfare legislation should also be emphasized to improve the efficacy of criminal procedures.

Costs of regulating ammonia emissions from livestock farms near Natura 2000 areas - analyses of case farms from Germany, Netherlands and Denmark.

Natura 2000 areas are designated according to the EU's Birds and Habitats Directives in order to protect particular habitats and species. A variety of these habitats and species are particularly sensitive to deposition of nitrogen caused by ammonia emissions. Livestock farming is the primary source of this pollution. The purpose of this paper is to compare the costs of reaching the ammonia emission targets for different livestock farms near Natura 2000 sites in the Netherlands, Germany (Schleswig-Holstein), and Denmark. These countries have some of the highest NH3 deposition rates in Europe, and Germany in particular will have to implement new measures to reach the NEC requirements for 2030. This will also benefit nature sites in Denmark as a large share of the ammonia emissions is dispersed over long distances. The general regulation includes implementation of BAT technologies and emission ceilings. The analysis looks at regulatory aspects, the emission requirements and the cost of implementing the technologies to reduce emissions further. The selected case farms are a finisher farm and a dairy farm, and the distance to a Natura 2000 site is 400 and 2000 m. In all three countries, relatively few livestock farms are situated near or inside Natura 2000 areas. The regulatory approach is very different in the three countries and key issues are: additional deposition from projects, neighbouring livestock farms (cumulation), the inclusion of background deposition and the use of the critical loads concept. The Dutch PAS system is interesting as projected reductions in emissions are distributed as additional "room for development" today. The costs for the case farm with finishers in Schleswig-Holstein are the highest as the Filter Decree requires the use of air scrubbers. The findings suggest that farms 400 m from a Natura 2000 site in the Netherlands face lower and less costly constraints than in the other countries, whereas the opposite is the case for farms 2000 m from Natura 2000 sites. The requirements near Natura 2000, where strict requirements apply, are so high that farms will expand at a different site instead.