Final Stages Of Collision Research Articles

Electronic stopping in ternary material SiCN: Anomalous behavior of slow channeling helium ions

By performing time-dependent density functional theory simulations, we reveal an anomalous deviation from linear low-velocity electronic stopping for slow channeling helium ions in the ternary material SiCN. We ascribe the deviation behavior that occurs upon helium ion irradiated SiCN to trapped electrons in the final stage of collision. The result show that the electron trapping for the exit-side of the material is more sensitive to the projectile velocity than that for the entrance-side, and that this has a corresponding relationship with nonlinear electronic stopping. In addition, our calculations reveal enhanced nonlinear electronic stopping to the off-center channels, particularly near the C/N layers. We propose the increased electron excitation for the increased charge density channel under a small impact parameter as the most plausible explanation for this behavior.

New whole-rock skarn and porphyry fertility indicators: Insights from Cu-Au-Fe skarn and Cu-Mo-Au porphyry deposits in Eastern Transbaikalia, Russia

Identifying new whole-rock geochemical fertility indicators for porphyry and skarn productive systems is a geological challenge due to a large variety of tectonic settings, magmatic source regions and petrological evolution of the parental intrusions. This is especially true for non-porphyry-related Cu-Au-Fe skarns for which no relevant whole rock or chemical mineral indicators are currently recorded. Our study provides high‐precision whole‐rock data of granitoids from the Kultuma Cu-Au-Fe skarn deposit in Eastern Transbaikalia, Russia, in order to define productive skarn suites.The Kultuma Cu-Au-Fe skarn deposit consists of two contemporaneous (dated at ca. 159–161 Ma and 157–158 Ma using U-Pb methods) pulses of mineralized high-calc-alkaline to shoshonitic I-type granites that were emplaced during the final stage of collision following the closure of the Mongol–Okhotsk ocean. Igneous suites of both skarn-related pulses are high-K (3–5 wt% K2O) and range in composition from low-silica and high-magnesian monzonite porphyries to high-silica and high- to moderate-magnesian quartz‐syenite and granite porphyries. They originated from moderately oxidized (zircon Eu/Eu* = avg. 0.24 and ΔFMQ = avg. + 0.4 to + 0.6), moderately hydrous (whole-rock Sr/Y = 40–64; zircon Yb/Dy = avg. 3.6), low to moderately fractionated (whole-rock Eu/Eu* = avg. 0.86) magmas that evolved through substantial interaction with the lower crust (whole-rock La/Yb = 24–54, (Dy/Yb)CN = 1.4–2.0, Yb = 0.5–1.2 ppm) followed by deep-level amphibole and shallow-level plagioclase fractionation, respectively.Based on a comprehensive set of new whole‐rock data, we propose the use of (Sr/Y)/Y and 100[(Rb/Sr)/FeO*] ratios to discriminate between fertile non-porphyry-related skarn and porphyry and porphyry-related skarn suites and unmineralized granite intrusions. Our proposed new discrimination thresholds of (Sr/Y)/Y and 100[(Rb/Sr)/FeO*] are effective in Eastern Transbaikalia, but they could potentially be useful for the geochemical discrimination between intrusions prospective for Cu-Mo-Au-Fe skarn and porphyry mineralization and barren calc‐alkaline granitic suites in other arc‐related mineral belts worldwide.

The Kultuma Au–Cu–Fe-Skarn Deposit (Eastern Transbaikalia): Magmatism, Zircon Geochemistry, Mineralogy, Age, Formation Conditions and Isotope Geochemical Data

The Kultuma deposit is among the largest and most representative Au–Cu–Fe–skarn deposits situated in Eastern Transbaikalia. However, its genetic classification is still a controversial issue. The deposit is confined to the similarly named massif of the Shakhtama complex, which is composed mainly of quartz monzodiorite-porphyry and second-phase monzodiorite-porphyry. The magmatic rocks are characterized by a low Fe2O3/FeO ratio, low magnetic susceptibility and belong to meta-aluminous, magnesian high-potassic calc-alkalic reduced granitoids of type I. The results of 40Ar-39Ar and laser ablation inductively coupled plasma mass spectrometry (LA-ICP-MS) U-Pb dating showed that the formation of magmatic rocks proceeded during the Late Jurassic time: 161.5–156.8 Ma. Relatively low Ce/Ce*, Eu/Eu* and Dy/Yb ratios in the zircons indicate that the studied magmatic rocks were formed under relatively reduced conditions and initially contained a rather low amount of magmatic water. A mineralogical–geochemical investigation allowed us to outline five main stages (prograde skarn, retrograde skarn, potassic alteration, propylitic (hydrosilicate) alteration and late low-temperature alteration) of mineral formation, each of them being characterized by a definite paragenetic mineral association. The major iron, gold and copper ores were formed at the stage of retrograde skarn and potassic alteration, while the formation of polymetallic ores proceeded at the stage of propylitic alteration. The obtained timing of the formation of retrograde skarn (156.3 Ma) and magmatic rocks of the Shakhtama complex, along with the direct geological observations, suggest their spatial–temporal and genetic relationship. The data obtained on the age of magmatic rocks and ore mineralization are interpreted as indicating the formation of the Kultuma deposit that proceeded at the final stages of collision. Results of the investigation of the isotope composition of S in sulfide minerals point to their substantial enrichment with the heavy sulfur isotope (δ34S from 6.6 to 16‰). The only exclusion with anomalous low δ34S values (from 1.4 to 3.7‰) is pyrrhotite from retrograde skarns of the Ochunogda region. These differences are, first of all, due to the composition of the host rocks. Results of the studies of C and O isotope composition allow us to conclude that one of the main sources of carbon was the host rocks of the Bystrinskaya formation, while the changes in the isotope composition of oxygen are mainly connected with decarbonization processes and the interactions of magmatic fluids, host rocks and meteoric waters. The fluids that are responsible for the formation of the mineral associations of retrograde skarns and the zones of potassic alteration at the Kultuma deposit were reduced, moderately hot (~360–440 °C) and high-pressure (estimated pressure is up to 2.4 kbar). The distinguishing features of the fluids in the zones of potassic alteration at the Ochunogda region are a lower concentration and lower estimated pressure values (~1.7 kbar). The propylitic alteration took place with the participation of reduced lower-temperature (~280–320 °C) and lower-pressure (1–1.2 kbar) fluids saturated with carbon dioxide, which were later on diluted with meteoric waters to become more water-rich and low-temperature (~245–260 °C). The studies showed that the main factors that affected the distribution and specificity of mineralization are magmatic, lithological and structural–tectonic ones. Results of the studies allow us to classify the Kultuma deposit as a Au–Cu–Fe–skarn deposit related to reduced intrusion.

Evolution of the Western Ethiopian Shield revealed through U-Pb geochronology, petrogenesis, and geochemistry of syn- and post-tectonic intrusive rocks

Ethiopian basement formed between 850 and 450 Ma during the East African Orogen and represents the junction of the two distinct basement types found in Africa and Saudi Arabia: the low-grade Arabian-Nubian Shield and the high-grade Mozambique Belt. While many other localities along the East African Orogenic belt are well studied and despite the huge potential insight it could grant to the orogen’s evolution, Ethiopian Basement is poorly understood. This study aims to understand the tectonic evolution of the East African Orogen in Ethiopia through the examination of the age, origin, and evolution of previously unmapped syn- and post-tectonic plutons intruded into the Western Ethiopian Shield’s eastern edge. Dabana granite pluton crystallization ages were determined through U-Pb geochronological dating, and structural history was revealed through field mapping and thin section petrographic analysis. Whole rock elemental composition was determined through XRF (X-ray fluorescence) and ICP-OES (Inductively Coupled Plasma Optical Emission Spectrometry) methods to investigate petrogenesis and chemical evolution of the plutonic rocks. Results indicate this pluton formed during three intrusive periods under distinct tectonic domains that represent an evolving convergent margin. The oldest granite dates to 797.6 Ma and is associated with hydrous melting during volcanic arc subduction, followed by post-subduction related anhydrous magmatism at 774.6 Ma. The youngest granites date to 635–639 Ma and are evidence of late-stage crustal thickening in the final stage of collision. Two metamorphic episodes are recorded in the structure and petrography, which formed gneiss during high-grade metamorphism at 775.22 Ma and low-grade deformation around 630 Ma. This study presents the first geochronological and geochemical data from plutonic rocks in the study area, and grants valuable insight into the dynamics and evolution of the East African Orogen in Ethiopia.

U-Pb zircon geochronology of intrusive rocks from an exotic block in the Late Cretaceous – Paleocene Taraklı Flysch (northern Turkey): Constraints on the tectonics of the Intrapontide suture zone

In the Boyalı area (northern Anatolia), a thick succession of the Early Maastrichtian - Middle Paleocene Taraklı Flysch crops out. The Taraklı Flysch represents a foredeep sediment deposited during the final stage of collision between the Sakarya and Istanbul-Zonguldak continental margins, that developed as a consequence of the closure of the Intrapontide oceanic basin.The top of the Taraklı Flysch is characterized by a level of slide-block in shaly-matrix lithofacies that can be considered as the result of several fast catastrophic events predating the closure of the basin and its deformation. This level consists of slide-blocks surrounded by monomict pebbly-mudstones and pebbly-sandstones. Among the slide-blocks, the biggest one consists of quartz-monzonites and leucocratic granodiorites of Late Permian age (260.8 ± 2.2 Ma) dated by zircon LA-ICP-MS method. By comparison with the regional data, the source area of these granitoids can be identified in the Istanbul-Zonguldak terrane. This evidence suggests a new picture for the paleogeographic setting of the ultimate stage of the continental collision between the Istanbul-Zonguldak and the Sakarya continental margins. In this scenario the coarse-grained deposits of the Taraklı Flysch are supplied by an orogenic wedge, consisting of oceanic units topped by the Istanbul-Zonguldak terrane. This orogenic wedge represented the north side of the foredeep, while the southern one was represented by the still undeformed Sakarya continental margin.

Growth of mountain belts in central Asia triggers a new collision zone in central India

Several unusual strong earthquakes occurred in central India along the Narmada-Son Lineament (NSL) zone, far from active plate boundaries. To understand the role of collisional processes in the origin of this seismicity, we develop a numerical thermomechanical model of shortening between the Indian Plate and Asia. We show that at the final stage of collision, the shortening rate of the high mountain areas slows. The continuing convergence of India and Asia triggers the initiation of a new collision zone in continental part of India. Various geological and geophysical observations indicate that the NSL is a weakest zone with northward thrusting of the thinner central Indian lithosphere underneath the thicker northern part of the Indian Plate. We hypothesize that the NSL was reactivated during the final stage of the India Asia convergence and it will possibly form a new mountain belt within the Indian continent.

Structure and provenance of Late Cretaceous–Miocene sediments located near the NE Dinarides margin: Inferences from kinematics of orogenic building and subsequent extensional collapse

The NE part of the Dinarides Mountain chain, located near their junction with the Carpatho-Balkanides, is an area where sedimentary basins associated with the Neotethys subduction and collision are still exposed. We performed a provenance study, based on detrital fission track thermochronology combined with zircon UPb magmatic geochronology, and existing studies of kinematics and exhumation. Our study shows rapid sedimentation in the trench and forearc basin overlying the upper European tectonic plate. A number of latest Cretaceous–Early Paleocene igneous provenance ages show a dominant magmatic source area, derived from a Late Cretaceous subduction-related arc. This arc shed short time lag sediments in the forearc and the trench system, possibly associated with focused exhumation in the Serbo-Macedonian margin. This was followed by burial of the trench sediments and a novel stage of Middle–Late Eocene exhumation driven by continued continental collision that had larger effects than previously thought. The collision was followed by Late Oligocene–Miocene exhumation of the former lower Adriatic plate along extensional detachments that reactivated the inherited collisional contact along the entire Dinarides margin. This event re-distributed sediments at short distances in the neighboring Miocene basins. Our study demonstrates that the Dinarides orogenic system is characterized by short lag times between exhumation and re-deposition, whereas the upper tectonic plate is significantly exhumed only during the final stages of collision. Such an exhumation pattern is not directly obvious from observing the overall geometry of the orogen.

Basement-involved reactivation in foreland fold-and-thrust belts: the Alpine–Carpathian Junction (Austria)

AbstractThe late Eocene – early Miocene Alpine–Carpathian fold-and-thrust belt (FTB) lies in the transition between the Eastern Alps and the Western Carpathians, SE of the Bohemian crystalline massif. Our study shows the involvement of crystalline basement from the former European Jurassic continental margin in two distinct events. A first extensional event coeval with Eggerian–Karpatian (c.28–16 Ma) thin-skinned thrusting reactivated the rift basement fault array and resulted from the large degree of lower plate bending promoted by high lateral gradients of lithospheric strength and slab pull forces. Slab break-off during the final stages of collision around Karpatian times (c.17–16 Ma) promoted large-wavelength uplift and an excessive topographic load. This load was reduced by broadening the orogenic wedge through the reactivation of the lower-plate deep detachment beneath and ahead of the thin-skinned thrust front (with the accompanying positive inversion of the basement fault array) and ultimately, by the collapse of the hinterland summits, enhanced by transtensional faulting. Although this work specifically deals with the involvement of the basement in the Alpine–Carpathian Junction, the main conclusions are of general interest to the understanding of orogenic systems.

Continental arc magmatism in a Mesoproterozoic convergent margin: Petrological and geochemical constraints from the magmatic suite of Kondapalle along the eastern margin of the Indian plate

The magmatic suite at Kondapalle represents a Mesoproterozoic (~ ca. 1634 Ma) magmatic arc emplaced in the southern sector of the Eastern Ghats Belt (EGB). Here we present new geological, mineralogical and geochemical data on the various lithological units in this complex including anorthosites, gabbronorites and pyroxenites. The major mineral constituents in these rocks are plagioclase (An 98–57), amphibole (X Mg 0.93–0.52), orthopyroxene (X Mg 0.94–0.51), clinopyroxene (X Mg 0.93–0.63) and chromite (X Mg 0.20–50). The near-absence of plagioclase in the orthopyroxenites, early and abundant crystallization of orthopyroxene, and formation of gabbronorites rather than gabbro or olivine gabbro in the Kondapalle suite are correlated with the features of arc cumulates. The chemistry of chromian spinel and clinopyroxene also displays the trend for arc cumulates. The variations in the anorthite content of plagioclase vs. the Mg# of olivine attest to an arc-related magma source. The rocks display low abundance of incompatible trace elements (Ba, Rb, K and Zr) comparable to the values typically observed in subduction-related magmatic arcs. In trace element N-MORB normalized diagrams, all the rock units show Nb–Ta–Ti–Zr troughs reflecting the features characteristic of arc magmas. We interpret the Kondapalle rocks to represent the root zone of a deeply eroded magmatic arc built during the Mesoproterozoic associated with the subduction of an oceanic lithosphere in a long-lived convergent margin. We identify that the Mesoproterozoic subduction along the eastern margin of the Indian plate generated a wide arc-accretionary complex with an extruded high P–T metamorphic orogen during the final stage of collision. The subduction–accretion process is also supported by recent findings of Mesoproterozoic ophiolite mélanges from this zone, marking the history from the break-up of the Paleoproterozoic Columbia supercontinent to the assembly of the Neoproterozoic Rodinia supercontinent.

Petrology and geochemistry of the Saga and Sangsang ophiolitic massifs, Yarlung Zangbo Suture Zone, Southern Tibet: Evidence for an arc–back-arc origin

The Saga and Sangsang ophiolites are located about 600 and 450 km west of Lhasa and represent a western extention of the central portion of the Yarlung Zangbo Suture Zone (YZSZ) ophiolite belt. The Saga massif comprises fresh mantle lherzolite and cpx-harzburgite, an ophiolite mélange (± amphibolite), metamorphosed mafic crustal rocks (meta-gabbro, meta-basalts and amphibolites) and a sequence of uppermost crustal rocks (chert, basaltic lavas, diabase sills and dikes). The Sangsang ophiolite consists of an ophiolite mélange (harzburgite) and upper mantle harzburgite with minor lavas and gabbro. Peridotites from both massifs show variable degrees of serpentinization. Their Mg# varies between 0.89 and 0.91. All peridotites show distinct flat REE (rare earth elements) patterns with La/Yb N ratios close to 1, probably indicative of a refertilized mantle. The Olivine-Spinel equilibrium and the spinel chemistry for the Saga (Cr# ~ 0.10–0.22) and Sangsang (Cr# ~ 0.30–0.55) peridotites suggest that the Saga peridotites have a deeper mantle provenance (> 20 kbar) and have undergone lower degrees of partial melting (5–12%) than the Sangsang peridotites (< 15 kbar; 17–30%). The composition of the Saga peridotites is similar to the composition of pre-oceanic peridotites while peridotites from the Sangsang massif resemble abyssal and subduction-related peridotites. Mafic rocks from both ophiolites have basalt and basaltic andesite compositions. They are slightly depleted in light REE with respect to the heavy REE, with La/Yb N between 0.5 and 0.8 and with a small negative Ta-Nb anomaly suggesting the presence of a subduction component. The abundances of incompatible elements in these mafic rocks are similar to N-MORB (mid-ocean ridge basalt) or back-arc-basin basalts (BABB). Our data suggest that the Saga and Sangsang ophiolites belong to an intraoceanic suprasubduction zone segment as postulated for other ophiolitic massifs in the eastern portion of the YZSZ. However, the geochemistry of mantle rocks from these two massifs is different compared to each other (fertile vs. refractory) and compared to other YZSZ ophiolites suggesting different petrogenetic histories. Field relationships and geochemical data furthermore suggest that the Saga and Sangsang ophiolites were formed in a complex arc–back-arc setting where at least two subducting slabs must have been active. This study places one more piece in the YZSZ puzzle and lead to a better understanding of the morphology of the convergence zone before the final stage of collision which led to the present configuration of the suture zone.

Post-collisional deformation of the Anatolides and motion of the Arabian indenter: A paleomagnetic analysis

In the Anatolides of Turkey the neotectonic (post collisional) phase of deformation embraces the period since final closure of the southern arm of Neotethys in mid-Miocene times. The Arabian Shield indenter has continued to deform into the weak Anatolian accretionary collage resulting from subduction of this ocean by a combination of differential movement relative to the African Plate and counterclockwise (CCW) rotation. Much of resulting deformation has been accommodated by slip along major transforms comprising the North Anatolian Fault Zone (NAFZ), the East Anatolian Fault Zone (EAFZ) and the northward extension of the Dead Sea Fault Zone (DSFZ) but has also been distributed as differential block rotations through the zone of weak crust in between. Facets of this deformation comprise crustal thickening and uplift to produce the Anatolian Plateau, establishment of transform faults and tectonic escape as Arabia has continued to impinge into the Anatolian collage. Paleomagnetic analysis of this deformation is facilitated by the widespread distribution of neotectonic volcanism and graben infills, and rotations relative to the Eurasian reference frame are recognised on two scales. Rapid rotation (up to 5°/10,000 years) of small fault blocks is identified between master faults along the intracontinental transforms but deformation does not extend away from these zones and shows that seismogenic upper crust is decoupled from a lower continental lithosphere undergoing continuum deformation. The broad area of weak accreted crust between the transforms is dissected into large fault blocks which exhibit much lower rotation rates (mostly < 1°/100,000 years) that vary systematically across the Anatolides. Large CCW rotations near the Arabian indenter diminish westwards to become zero then CW near the limit of tectonic escape in western Turkey. The view that the collage has rotated anticlockwise as a single plate, either uniformly or episodically, during the Neotectonic era is refuted. Instead, deformation has been distributed and differential as the collage has adapted to changing tectonic regimes. Crustal extrusion to the west and south has expanded the curvature of the Tauride Arc and combined with retreat of the Hellenic Arc to produce the extensional horst and graben province in western Turkey. A challenge of present work is to resolve the temporal framework of tectonic rotation. Evidence from the Cappadocian volcanic province and Sivas Basin in central Anatolia indicates that rotation has been concentrated within the last 2–3 million years of the neotectonic era and therefore correlates with establishment of the intracontinental transform framework. Thus we recognise two phases to the evolution of this sector of the orogen: the first embraces crustal thickening and uplift with initiation defined specifically by transition from marine to terrestrial deposition in the Serravallian at ~12 Ma, and the second embraces crustal extrusion to the west motivated by continuing northward movement of Arabia and roll back on the Hellenic Arc since late Pliocene times. Latitudinal motions detected by paleomagnetism are close to confidence limits and consistent with small northward motion of the Anatolides since Eocene times including up to a few hundred km of closure linked to crustal thickening since the demise of NeoTethys. The driving motion from the Arabian indenter can be partially resolved from the widespread basaltic volcanism that occurred along the periphery of the Arabian Shield at 12–18 Ma during final stages of collision along the Bitlis Suture. This defines CCW rotation of 13–21° with respect to Eurasia. An average CCW rotation of 0.9°/Myr since closure of the Bitlis Suture in mid-Miocene times is unlikely to have been uniform because it has been linked to three adjoining interactions namely episodic opening of the Red Sea, a transition from crustal thickening to tectonic escape in the Anatolian collage and variable rates of strike slip motion on the DSFZ.

Structure of the eastern margin of the East African Orogen in central Madagascar

The island of Madagascar straddles the poorly understood eastern margin of the East African Orogen, which is characterised by a high-grade gneissic basement that was structurally and thermally reworked during the Neoproterozoic collision of the Dharwar craton of India with the Congo/Tanzania/Bangweulu craton of Africa. An east-west traverse across the eastern margin of the Antananarivo block of central Madagascar and the overlying Beforona belt of the Tsaratanana sheet has identified four north-south trending structural domains, which represent the easternmost units of the East African Orogen. Dominant structures in these four domains are ascribed to two main deformation events, D2 and D3, whereas a poorly preserved early foliation and late folding event are classified as D1 and D4, respectively. D2 structures developed during east-west shortening comprise relatively low-strain, upright, north-south trending folds and steeply dipping, planar, north-south trending high-strain zones, both of which are associated with a stretching lineation that plunges gently north-south. D3 structures comprise a >20 km wide mylonitic high-strain zone and smaller scale discrete shear zones that dip gently west and exhibit top-to-the-east movement, again interpreted as a result of east-west shortening. The Antananarivo block and Beforona belt were juxtaposed sometime before D2 folding, which deforms the contact between the two units, but some time after an early granulite-facies metamorphic event that is preserved only in low strain zones of the Antananarivo block. D2 coaxial strain and D3 non-coaxial strain both occurred under amphibolite-facies metamorphic conditions and, although D3 shear zones locally cut D2 structures, these two events need not be temporally distinct. Published geochronological data from rocks exposed along this traverse constrain the likely timing of D2 and D3 to 630–515 Ma. The age, style and magnitude of strain along the eastern Antananarivo block indicates that eastern Madagascar was a focus for deformation during the final stages of collision between the Dharwar and Congo/Tanzania/Bangweulu cratons.

Geology, distribution, and classification of gold deposits in the western Qinling belt, central China

Gold deposits of the western Qinling belt occur within the western part of the Qinling–Dabie–Sulu orogen, which is located between the Precambrian North China and Yangtze cratons and east of the Songpan–Ganzi basin. The early Paleozoic to early Mesozoic orogen can be divided into northern, central, and southern zones, separated by the Shangdan and Lixian–Shanyang thrust fault systems. The northern zone consists of an early Paleozoic arc accreted to the North China craton by ca. 450 Ma. The central zone, which contains numerous orogenic gold deposits, is dominated by clastic rocks formed in a late Paleozoic basin between the converging cratonic blocks. The southern zone is characterized by the easternmost exposure of Triassic sedimentary rocks of the Songpan–Ganzi basin. These Early to Late Triassic turbidities, in part calcareous, of the immense Songpan–Ganzi basin also border the western Qinling belt to the west. Carlin-like gold deposits are abundant (1) along a westward extension of the southern zone defined by a window of early Paleozoic clastic rocks extending into the basin, and (2) within the easternmost margin of the basinal rocks to the south of the extension, and in adjacent cover rocks of the Yangtze craton. Triassic and Early Jurassic synkinematic granitoids are widespread across the western Qinling belt, as well as in the Songpan–Ganzi basin. Orogenic lode gold deposits along brittle–ductile shear zones occur within greenschist-facies, highly-deformed, Devonian and younger clastic rocks of the central zone. Mainly coarse-grained gold, along with pyrite, pyrrhotite, arsenopyrite, and minor base metal sulfides, occur in networks of quartz veinlets, brecciated wall rock, and are disseminated in altered wall rock. Isotopic dates suggest that the deposits formed during the Late Triassic to Middle Jurassic as the leading edge of the Yangtze craton was thrust beneath rocks of the western Qinling belt. Many gold-bearing placers are distributed along the river systems that flow south from the lode-bearing central zone. Carlin-like gold deposits have only been identified during the last decade in the southern zone of the western Qinling and in the northeastern corner of the Songpan–Ganzi basin. The deposits mainly contain micron-diameter gold in arsenical pyrite; are characterized by the common occurrence of cinnabar, stibnite, realgar, and orpiment; exhibit strong silicification, carbonatization, pyritization, and decalcification dissolution textures; and are structurally controlled. The lack of reactive host lithologies may have prevented development of large (>100 tonnes of gold), stratigraphically-controlled orebodies, which are typical of the Carlin deposits in the western USA. These deposits are hosted by Triassic turbidities and shallow-water carbonates, and an early Paleozoic inlier in the Songpan–Ganzi basin that extends in an east–west belt for about 300 km. Rather than true "Carlin" deposits, these Carlin-like deposits may be some type of shallow-crustal (i.e., epithermal) hybrid with features intermediate to Nevada-style Carlin deposits and the orogenic gold deposits to the immediate north. These Carlin-like deposits also overlap in age with the early Mesozoic orogenic gold deposits and, therefore, also formed during the final stages of collision between the cratons and intermediate basin closure.

Regional geochemistry, terrane analysis and metallogeny in the British Caledonides

Abstract The Caledonides of northern Britain are commonly divided into an assemblage of terranes based on the interpretation of geology in relation to major fault structures. This paper incorporates metallogenic concepts into the terrane model and uses systematic regional geochemical data to constrain models of terrane configuration and evolution: analyses of one-, two- and three-component geochemical images are used to identify changes in the levels of single elements and their ratios across the orogen. The distribution of sedimentary exhalative (SEDEX) ore deposits and volcanogenic massive sulphide, and mesothermal and epithermal gold mineralization is shown to reflect the presence of long-lived metallogenic provinces which have distinctive geochemistry reflecting their origin as zones of crustal extension and lithospheric thinning. The geochemistry of the northern Caledonides reflects the predominantly lower crustal nature of the Laurentian continental margin, now exposed in the Lewisian foreland and Caledonized Lewisian inliers in the Moine succession. In contrast, the Avalonian Plate has a more evolved geochemistry, although the ratios of elements associated with basic rocks suggests that they were less fractionated during emplacement into the thinner crust of Avalonia and the Iapetus Suture Zone. The predominantly psammitic Moine Supergroup and the Grampian Group Dalradian have an evolved chemistry consistent with derivation from a higher crustal level than that of the exposed Lewisian complex; basin-scale variations, such as the proportion and composition of arkosic material, are also evident. The regional pattern was intermittently disrupted by the influx of mantle material during deposition of the mineralized Argyll and Southern Highland groups (Dalradian), and later as intrusions were emplaced from early Ordovician (Grampian Orogeny) to early Devonian times. South of the Southern Upland Fault, the geochemical patterns suggest a complex interplay of sedimentary provenance and depositional environments during the final stages of collision between Laurentia and Avalonia. Provenance changes in early Silurian times probably reflect the initiation of major tectonism in the Scandian Orogen to the northeast and, more locally, a change from a mineralized, extensional back-arc- to a foreland-basin environment as the Laurentian plate overrode Avalonia. Very similar geochemical trends extending from the highest Silurian strata in the Southern Uplands into the Windermere Supergroup of the English Lake District are consistent with sequential deposition in the same foreland basin. The principal crustal boundaries indicated by the geochemical data are the Moine Thrust Zone, the Grampian-Appin groups’ boundary, the Highland Boundary Fault and the Southern Upland Fault. The geochemical evidence provides little support for the Great Glen Fault as a significant terrane boundary, while the Iapetus Suture is shown to be a complex transition zone extending across the Southern Uplands and into the south of the Lake District. Within the former, the Moffat Valley Fault is identified as a major structure of regional significance. Throughout the orogen there is a direct relationship between geochemistry, tectonic setting and the presence of significant metalliferous mineralization.

Sutures and shear zones in the Arabian-Nubian Shield

Deformational belts in the Arabian-Nubian Shield (ANS) are divided into: (1) those associated with sutures, both arc-arc and arc-continental; and (2) post-accretionary structures which include north trending shortening zones and northwest trending strike-slip faults. The arc-arc sutures manifest collision between arc terranes at -800-700 Ma. They are orientated east to northeast in the northern part of the ANS and north to north-northeast in the south. North or south verging ophiolitic nappes are associated with the east to northeast trending sutures. These nappes were steepened by upright folds associated with the final stages of collision between terranes. East or west verging ophiolitic nappes are associated with the north to north-northeast trending sutures. These were deformed by upright folds and strike-slip faults related to oblique collision between terranes and/or post-accretionary deformations. The arc-continental sutures define the eastern and western boundaries of the ANS and are marked by north trending deformational belts which accompanied collision of the ANS with east and west Gondwana at -750-650 Ma. The post-accretionary structures were developed between -650-550 Ma due to continued shortening of the ANS. This produced north trending shortening zones which offset the east to northeast trending sutures in the northern part of the ANS but were superimposed as co-axial deformation on the north to north-northeast trending sutures in the south. The shortening deformation culminated with the development of northwest trending strike-slip faults and shear zones.

Geochemical studies of Archaean granitoid rocks in the Southeastern Kaapvaal Province: implications for crustal development

Recently completed mapping of the Archaean granitoid terrain immediately to the south of Swaziland and extending into northern Natal reveals that tonalitic-trondhjemitic-granodioritic (TTG) lithologies are dominant. The first recognized generation of TTG magmas is preserved as complexly deformed layered gneisses comparable in both mineralogy and chemistry to the bimodal suite in the Ancient Gneiss Complex of Swaziland. These TTG gneisses are characterized by heavy rare-earth element (REE) and Y depletion and strongly fractioned REE patterns, having either no or a small positive Eu anomaly. The most widespread TTG magmas are represented by the Anhalt Granitoid Suite that builds a major, tabular batholith. Rb-Sr and Pb isotopic data indicate that the Anhalt Granitoid Suite was emplaced at ∼3.25 Ga. This age suggests emplacement of the suite was contemporaneous with the intrusion of the Kaap Valley and Stolzburg plutons into the northwestern flank of the Barberton Sequence, 100 km to the North. It is proposed that the Anhalt Granitoid Suite was generated as a consequence of thrusting directed N or NW associated with crustal shortening during the initial stages of continental collision that ultimately lead to the closure of an oceanic basin in which the Onverwacht Group of the Barberton Sequence accumulated. Final stages of collision were marked at ∼3.1 Ga by the intrusion of tabular, potassic granite batholiths, the main locus of emplacement of which lies to N and NW of that of the Anhalt Granitoid Suite. Subsequent to the establishment of thick continental crust as a result of repeated granitoid plutonism prior to ∼ 3.1 Ga, an extensive depositional basin developed in which the Pongola Sequence accumulated. Dominantly potassic granitoids having geochemical characteristics of Phanerozoic with-in plate granites intrude the Pongola Sequence as (i) gneiss domes, (ii) a tabular batholith and (iii) sharply discordant, megacrystic plutons. The source of these granitoid magmas is uncertain but partial melting of the pre-Pongola sialic basement is considered to be probable.

Nd and Sr isotopic systematics of central Australian granulites: chronology of crustal development and constraints on the evolution of lower continental crust

Nd and Sr isotopic data are reported for a granulite terrain in the Proterozoic Arunta Block of Central Australia. Sm-Nd data from a wide range of rock types define a crust formation age of 2,070±125 Ma and provide further evidence for voluminous crustal growth in the Proterozoic. An ɛ Nd value of +1.5±0.8 indicates a depleted mantle source for this crustal segment and there is no evidence for a large component of significantly older sialic crust. Field relationships, geochemistry and Rb-Sr data for mafic and felsic granulites indicate that intracrustal differentiation and polyphase deformation were followed by granulite facies metamorphism (Rb depletion) at ∼1,800 Ma. Rb-Sr data for strongly retrogressed granulites define an age of ∼1,700 Ma which is interpreted as the time of retrograde biotite growth. Partial melting at the presently exposed crustal level and anatexis at deeper crustal levels were broadly coeval with the retrograde metamorphism. Sm-Nd and Rb-Sr isotopic systematics of minerals indicate that the terrain cooled slowly, did not experience significant uplift until ∼1,000 Ma and remained at temperatures above 320° C until the late Palaeozoic. The mineral data are consistent with geological relationships and petrological evidence for a prolonged period of isobaric cooling followed by uplift late in the metamorphic evolution of the terrain. The granulite protoliths appear to have formed in a rift which closed within ∼280 Ma of initial separation. Deformation and granulite facies metamorphism at ∼1,800 Ma are interpreted to be a consequence of collision between the continental blocks which defined the rift. Regional retrogression and granitoid magmatism at ∼1,700 Ma are attributed to underthrusting of the granulites by lower grade rocks in the final stages of collision. Subsequent events in the cooling and uplift history appear to have been controlled by the presence of long-lived major faults in the crust and a prolonged history of episodic compression in the continental lithosphere. The results of this study suggest that granulite terrains, in general, cannot be equated with lower continental crust but instead represent assemblages of (mainly) supracrustal rocks which in some instances have been involved in major collision events.

285. Influence of alloying elements on the mechnical properties and recrystallization point of Ta-33 per cent Nb alloy: A M Levin et al, Izv VUZ Tsvetnaya Met, No 3, 1967, 122–127

The Saga and Sangsang ophiolites are located about 600 and 450 km west of Lhasa and represent a western extention of the central portion of the Yarlung Zangbo Suture Zone (YZSZ) ophiolite belt. The Saga massif comprises fresh mantle lherzolite and cpx-harzburgite, an ophiolite mélange (± amphibolite), metamorphosed mafic crustal rocks (meta-gabbro, meta-basalts and amphibolites) and a sequence of uppermost crustal rocks (chert, basaltic lavas, diabase sills and dikes). The Sangsang ophiolite consists of an ophiolite mélange (harzburgite) and upper mantle harzburgite with minor lavas and gabbro.Peridotites from both massifs show variable degrees of serpentinization. Their Mg# varies between 0.89 and 0.91. All peridotites show distinct flat REE (rare earth elements) patterns with La/YbN ratios close to 1, probably indicative of a refertilized mantle. The Olivine-Spinel equilibrium and the spinel chemistry for the Saga (Cr# ~ 0.10–0.22) and Sangsang (Cr# ~ 0.30–0.55) peridotites suggest that the Saga peridotites have a deeper mantle provenance (> 20 kbar) and have undergone lower degrees of partial melting (5–12%) than the Sangsang peridotites (< 15 kbar; 17–30%). The composition of the Saga peridotites is similar to the composition of pre-oceanic peridotites while peridotites from the Sangsang massif resemble abyssal and subduction-related peridotites. Mafic rocks from both ophiolites have basalt and basaltic andesite compositions. They are slightly depleted in light REE with respect to the heavy REE, with La/YbN between 0.5 and 0.8 and with a small negative Ta-Nb anomaly suggesting the presence of a subduction component. The abundances of incompatible elements in these mafic rocks are similar to N-MORB (mid-ocean ridge basalt) or back-arc-basin basalts (BABB).Our data suggest that the Saga and Sangsang ophiolites belong to an intraoceanic suprasubduction zone segment as postulated for other ophiolitic massifs in the eastern portion of the YZSZ. However, the geochemistry of mantle rocks from these two massifs is different compared to each other (fertile vs. refractory) and compared to other YZSZ ophiolites suggesting different petrogenetic histories. Field relationships and geochemical data furthermore suggest that the Saga and Sangsang ophiolites were formed in a complex arc–back-arc setting where at least two subducting slabs must have been active. This study places one more piece in the YZSZ puzzle and lead to a better understanding of the morphology of the convergence zone before the final stage of collision which led to the present configuration of the suture zone.