Final Baking Research Articles

Influence of baking time and formulation of part-baked wheat sourdough bread on the physical characteristics, sensory quality, glycaemic index and appetite sensations.

Raw materials and process parameters in bread production can modulate the glycemic index, which on itself has been linked with provision of better hunger satisfaction and maintaining better satiation. The objective of this research was to investigate if using unrefined wheat flour or the addition of intact cereals in formulation or alternating the baking time would have an effect on physical characteristics, sensory quality, glycaemic index and appetite sensations in wheat sourdough bread. In the study, three types of commercial part-baked frozen sourdough bread, baked to the final baking for two different times (long and short baking time) were used. A randomized controlled crossover trial was performed with 10 healthy adults who consumed sufficient quantity of bread to ingest 50 g available carbohydrates. Participants self-reported appetite sensations (desire to eat, hunger, fullness, satisfaction, appetite) on a 10 cm visual analog scale (VAS) scale in a course of 180 min. In addition, bread products were subjected to overall acceptability and different sensory attributes were examined on JAR "just about right" scale. Different bread formulations (refined flour, unrefined wheat flour, cereal flour or intact cereals) and different length of baking time significantly influenced (p < 0.005) physical, textural and sensory features of products. The alternation of aforementioned parameters decreased the glycemic index, but not significantly (p > 0.005). No correlation was found between lower GI, satiety and satiation. Liking score and incremental area under the curve (iAUC) of satiety and satiation were calculated as highest in sourdough bread with added cereals.

Influence of Non-Thermal Plasma Treatment on Structural Network Attributes of Wheat Flour and Respective Dough.

Due to its "generally recognized as safe status" (GRAS) and moderate treatment temperatures, non-thermal plasma (NTP) has lately been considered a suitable replacement for chemicals in the modification of food properties and for preserving food quality. One of the promising areas for the application of NTP is the treatment of wheat flour, leading to improved flour properties and product quality and consequently to higher customer satisfaction. In the present research, the German wheat flour type 550, equivalent to all-purpose flour, was treated using NTP in a rotational reactor to determine the influence of short treatment times (≤5 min) on the properties of flour (moisture and fat content, protein, starch, color, microbial activity, and enzymes), dough (visco-elastic properties, starch, wet and dry gluten, and water absorption), and baking products (color, freshness, baked volume, crumb structure, softness, and elasticity). Based on the properties of NTP, it was expected that even very short treatment times would have a significant effect on the flour particles, which could positively affect the quality of the final baking product. Overall, the experimental analysis showed a positive effect of NTP treatment of wheat flour, e.g., decreased water activity value (<0.7), which is known to positively affect flour stability and product shelf life; dough stability increased (>8% after 5 min. treatment); dough extensibility increased (ca. 30% after 3 min treatment); etc. Regarding the baking product, further positive effects were detected, e.g., enhanced product volume (>9%), improved crumb whiteness/decreased crumb yellowness, softening of breadcrumb without a change in elasticity, and limited microorganism and enzymatic activity. Furthermore, no negative effects on the product quality were observed, even though further food quality tests are required. The presented experimental research confirms the overall positive influence of NTP treatment, even for very low treatment times, on wheat flour and its products. The presented findings are significant for the potential implementation of this technique on an industrial level.

Strain-dependent assessment of dough's polymer structure and functionality during the baking process.

During the baking process, the functionality of the heterogeneous dough matrix changes as the composing polymers experience conformational transition processes. The thermally induced structural changes affect the involvement and functionality of the polymers in the dough matrix. With the main hypothesis being that different types and magnitudes of strain exerted during the measurement would provide information on different structural levels and interactions, SAOS rheology in multiwave mode and large deformation extensional rheometry were applied to two microstructurally different systems. The functionality of the two systems, a highly connected standard wheat dough (φ ≈ 1.1) and an aerated, yeasted wheat dough (φ ≈ 2.3), depicting limited connectivity and strength of interactions, was accessed under different deformations and types of strains. Applying SAOS rheology, starch functionality prevailed on the behavior of the dough matrix. In contrast, gluten functionality prevailed the large deformation behavior. Using an inline fermentation and baking LSF technique, the heat-induced gluten polymerization was shown to increase strain hardening behavior above 70°C. In the aerated system, the strain hardening effect became already evident under small deformation testing, as the expansion of gas cells caused a pre-expansion of the gluten strands. The expanded dough matrix of yeasted dough was further shown to be substantially subjected to degradation once the network reached beyond its maximal gas holding capacity. Using this approach, the combined impact of yeast fermentation and thermal treatment on the strain hardening behavior of wheat dough was revealed for the first time by LSF. Furthermore, the rheological properties were successfully linked to oven rise behavior: a decreasing connectivity combined with the initiation of strain hardening by fast extension processes occurring in the yeasted dough matrix during the final baking phase was linked to limited oven rise functionality prematurely around 60°C.

Utilization of industrial hemp by-product defatted seed flour: effect of its incorporation on the properties and quality characteristics of 'tsoureki', a rich-dough baked Greek product.

A rich-dough baked Greek product named 'tsoureki' was prepared using non-gluten hemp seed flour at ratios of 0:100, 10:90, 30:70, and 50:50. The effects of hemp flour addition on the properties of 'tsoureki', including physicochemical properties (moisture content, water activity, sorption phenomena), structural properties, textural properties, total phenolic content, antioxidant activity, and sensorial characteristics, as well as the macroscopic structure and morphological characteristics, were studied. Hemp flour addition affected dough rheology, showing tan δ values < 1, a decrease in both G' and G″ values, while both flow behavior and consistency indices were also significantly affected, which might have an influence on the final baked goods. The Guggenheim-Anderson-de Boer model satisfactorily described sorption data, while both hemp addition and temperature had a significant effect. A significantly higher hardness of 11.55 N, a lower specific volume of 2.65 cm3 g-1 , and a lower porosity of 0.676 were observed at high hemp additions. The hemp flour level influenced the color of the crumb and crust, and the total color difference (ΔE) increased significantly with the increase in hemp flour. Hemp flour additions were detectable by the naked eye, with an obvious color difference between control and hemp-containing samples. Moreover, the phenolic content and antioxidant capacity were increased, as were some organoleptic characteristics, such as the bitter aftertaste. Concurrently, overall acceptability decreased significantly. Overall, the incorporation of gluten-free defatted hemp seed flour in 'tsoureki' formulations seems to be a promising alternative for improving quality of such rich-dough baked products. © 2022 Society of Chemical Industry.

Studying The Effect of The Manufacturing Process of Heusler Compounds Co2MnZ (Z=Ga, Ge, Si) on its Crystal Order and Magnetic Properties

The effect of different manufacturing processes, such as arc melting, mechanical alloying, and baking, on the crystalline and magnetic behavior of Co2MnSi, Co2MnGa, and Co2MnGe compounds was investigated. Samples of Co2MnSi, Co2MnGe, and Co2MnGa compounds were produced using the arc melting method and the effect of mechanical alloying and annealing processes on the manufactured products was investigated. The results showed that the use of different processes during manufacturing leads to different crystalline and magnetic behaviors of the sample. One of these cases is the correlation of the crystal order with the lattice parameter size in the produced samples and its effect on reducing the saturation magnetization compared to Slater and Pauling's prediction. Also, the change of order induced by the mechanical alloying process in the production of Co2MnSi composition has led to a drop of about 14% in saturation magnetization. The coercivity in the sample produced by arc melting and mechanical alloying in Co2MnGe composition is lower than the expected value, which was attributed to the low magnetic anisotropy of the sample due to the small size of the crystals in this sample, which is compensated in the cooking process. For example, performing the grinding process before baking leads to a change in the crystal order and, consequently, to a decrease in the saturation magnetization of the sample. The final baking increases the size of the crystals and reduces the strain. The sample obtained from grinding after arc melting had more coercivity than the other two samples due to having smaller crystals.

Characterization of pasteurized and sonicated whole shell egg and evaluating egg's interior quality during storage period

AbstractThis study aims to investigate the effects of processing technologies (pasteurization; 56.5 °C for 45 min and sonication; 250 W for 5 min) on the whole eggshell. The interior quality and physicochemical parameters of eggs such, weight loss, foaming properties, total mesophilic aerobic bacteria count, and rheological behavior were evaluated during storage at ambient temperature for six weeks. Sonication has improved the physico‐chemical properties of the egg samples and enhanced the functionality. The weight losses of all treatment and control groups increased during the storage period. The greatest weight loss was detected in the control sample (9.5%). Weight loss between ultrasound (6.7%) and pasteurization (7.9%) groups were similar (p &gt; 0.05). The storage period had a significant (p &lt; 0.05) effect on the internal attributes of eggs such as functional characteristic (foaming ability). We conclude that the sonication has a promising advantage in techno‐functional properties comparing to thermal pasteurization.Practical applicationConsumer perception decreases to thermally processed foods. Traditional heat treatment processing such as pasteurization can adversely impact the functional properties, sensory, color, and nutritional values of processed eggs. However, nonthermally processing techniques applied at lower temperatures may cause limited detrimental effects on egg quality and prepared products from eggs such as meringue, cake, and mayonnaise. The eggs treated with emerging methods such as ultrasound retained egg's functional attributes and had their shelf life increased such as foaming ability and gelling properties. Also, sonication has promising potential for industrial application on shell eggs during storage and therefore hold potential for their shelf‐life extension and improve the functionality of final baked product. The treatment with emerging methods such as ultrasound retained egg's functional attributes and had their shelf life increased while enhancing the functional properties.

Recent advancements in baking technologies to mitigate formation of toxic compounds: A comprehensive review

Conventional hot air baking is a widely used food processing technology, which involves simultaneous heat and mass transfer processes. Chances of acrylamide and hydroxymethylfurfural formation is high in baked products due to high-temperature treatment. Since acrylamide and hydroxymethylfurfural are harmful to human health, it becomes crucial to develop novel baking technologies to mitigate these harmful components without affecting the sensorial properties of the final baked product. The formation of hydroxymethylfurfural and acrylamide are closely related to baking temperature, baking time, and ingredients. Novel technologies and pretreatments are shown promising results to mitigate these harmful components in the end products. This review describes the suitable pretreatment methods, novel baking technologies, and effective post-baking techniques that help mitigate the development of harmful compounds without affecting the textural attributes of baked products. Novel baking technologies, such as vacuum baking, high voltage electrical discharge, supercritical carbon dioxide extrusion process, power ultrasound, infrared, microwave and halogen lamp baking; different pretreatment technologies – ozone treatment, plasma treatment, high-pressure processing, ohmic heating, ultraviolet irradiation and ligh emitting diode treatment are discussed together with a comprehensive insight to the understanding of mechanisms involved in the formation of harmful components during processing and post-baking. • Mechanism of baking and heat transfer reactions occurred in baking are summarized. • Effect of pre-treatments on the harmful compounds in final baked product is discussed. • Application of novel baking technologies is outlined. • There is a miles away to produce healthier baked products with minimal toxic component.

Analysis of Fatty Acids, Amino Acids and Volatile Profile of Apple By-Products by Gas Chromatography-Mass Spectrometry.

Apple industrial by-products are a promising source of bioactive compounds with direct implications on human health. The main goal of the present work was to characterize the Jonathan and Golden Delicious by-products from their fatty acid, amino acid, and volatile aroma compounds’ point of view. GC-MS (gas chromatography-mass spectrometry) and ITEX/GC-MS methods were used for the by-products characterization. Linoleic and oleic were the main fatty acids identified in all samples, while palmitic and stearic acid were the representant of saturated ones. With respect to amino acids, from the essential group, isoleucine was the majority compound identified in JS (Jonathan skin) and GS (Golden skin) samples, lysine was the representant of JP (Jonathan pomace), and valine was mainly identified in GP (Golden pomace). A total number of 47 aroma volatile compounds were quantified in all samples, from which the esters groups ranged from 41.55–53.29%, aldehydes 29.75–43.99%, alcohols from 4.15 to 6.37%, ketones 4.14–5.72%, and the terpenes and terpenoids group reached values between 2.27% and 4.61%. Moreover, the by-products were valorized in biscuits manufacturing, highlighting their importance in enhancing the volatile aroma compounds, color, and sensorial analysis of the final baked goods.

Rheology-driven design of pizza gas foaming

This paper investigates the production of a yeast-free pizza by gas foaming and the use of rheology to guide the process design. The novel process relies on the use of a gaseous blowing agent and a pressure program to form and stabilize bubbles during baking, avoiding the use of yeast and the associated lengthy leavening stage. The evolution of the dough structure during baking has been studied by a rheological characterization at leavening and baking conditions. These experimental pieces of information have been used to evaluate the time available for blowing agent sorption under pressure during early baking stage, and to guide the pressure release during the final baking, to achieve an optimally foamed pizza.

Reintegration of Brewers Spent Grains in the Food Chain: Nutritional, Functional and Sensorial Aspects.

Nowadays, the pandemic situation has encouraged the idea of sustainable healthy foods leading to new trends in food consumption. Brewers spent grain (BSG) represents a potential functional food rich in fiber, protein, lipids, mineral and phenols that needs to be further exploited. In this vein, five different BSG types were collected from local breweries and valorized in cookies manufacturing. Thus, proximate composition (protein, minerals, lipids, ash, crude fiber and carbohydrates) was analyzed using AACC (American Association of Cereal Chemists) methods, DPPH (2,2-Diphenyl-1-picrylhydrazyl), and Folin Ciocalteu methods were used to determined antioxidant activity and total phenols, while minerals and aroma volatile compounds were performed using inductively coupled plasma optical emission spectrometry (ICP-OES) and ITEX/GC-MS (in tube extraction gas chromatography-mass spectrometry) respectively. Color and physical characteristics, together with sensorial analysis, were also evaluated. The results highlighted a significant difference between BSG samples, mainly from the total phenols, antioxidant activity and aroma volatile compounds point of view. BSG volatiles compounds from the aldehydes group such as 2-methyl-propanal, 3-methyl-butanal and 2-methyl-butanal were identified also in the final baked goods, leading to a pleasant and appreciated consumers’ taste and aroma. Furthermore, cookies sensorial analysis emphasized that the sample manufactured with BSG from light and dark malt mixture was more appreciated by consumers, attaining the highest hedonic scores.

A review of sourdough starters: ecology, practices, and sensory quality with applications for baking and recommendations for future research.

The practice of sourdough bread-making is an ancient science that involves the development, maintenance, and use of a diverse and complex starter culture. The sourdough starter culture comes in many different forms and is used in bread-making at both artisanal and commercial scales, in countries all over the world. While there is ample scientific research related to sourdough, there is no standardized approach to using sourdough starters in science or the bread industry; and there are few recommendations on future directions for sourdough research. Our review highlights what is currently known about the microbial ecosystem of sourdough (including microbial succession within the starter culture), methods of maintaining sourdough (analogous to land management) on the path to bread production, and factors that influence the sensory qualities of the final baked product. We present new hypotheses for the successful management of sourdough starters and propose future directions for sourdough research and application to better support and engage the sourdough baking community.

Fortification of wheat flour with black soldier fly prepupae. Evaluation of technological and nutritional parameters of the intermediate doughs and final baked products

Bread wheat flour presents specific nutrient deficiencies, such as some essential amino acids and this drawback could be tackled by adding ingredients that contain them in high amounts. Therefore, this study aims at developing new types of flours as well as at analysing enriched flours and baked derived products, which combine the compositional and sensory characteristics of wheat bread with some peculiar nutritional properties of black soldier fly prepupae (Hermetia illucens). These composite flours were obtained by mixing “Italian type 1” semi-whole wheat flour (W = 300) with flour obtained from prepupae of black soldier fly (20 g and 40 g/1 kg composite flour). Chemical, physical, and rheological analyses were carried out for each of the flour mixtures. Moisture, ash, gluten, total protein content, falling number, strength, tenacity, extensibility, amino acid profile of doughs and breads were analysed as well. An increase in the content of essential amino acids in doughs and baked products was obtained and also led to an improvement in bread texture.

Convective Baking Characteristics and Effective Moisture Diffusivities of Yellow Mealworms

Yellow mealworm is an alternative protein source studied by researchers to provide an alternative supply of protein to meet the growing demands of human consumption. In this research, convective baking of yellow mealworms at 80°C, 100°C, and 120°C was carried out to study the baking kinetics and product quality. Studies showed the typical falling trend of the moisture ratio curves, which are typical for most bioproducts that undergo hot air treatment. Mathematical modelling showed that the Page model gave a good prediction on the baking kinetics with high fitting accuracy (R2&gt;0.99). Effective diffusivities were determined from 1.66 x 10-11 to 2.88 x 10-11 m2/s within the temperatures tested. The activation energy was estimated at 15.7 kJ/mol based on the Arrhenius equation. The final baked samples appeared darker in color because the browning reaction and reduction in bulk density and product length were observed in the range of 48-54% and 3.0-16.3%, respectively.

Effect of Rice Flour Fermentation with Lactobacillus spicheri DSM 15429 on the Nutritional Features of Gluten-Free Muffins.

Lactobacillus Spicheri DSM 15429 strain was used to ferment rice flour, aiming at exploiting its influence on the amino-acids, minerals, lactic acid, total phenols, and antioxidant activity of the rice sourdough and gluten-free muffins. Gluten-free muffins were prepared by using 15% rice sourdough fermented with the above strain of lactic acid bacteria and compared with rice spontaneous fermentation. Methods like LC-MS (Liquid chromatography–mass spectrometry), AA (atomic absorption), HPLC (High-performance liquid chromatography), Folin–Ciocalteu, and 1,1-Diphenyl-2-picrylhydrazyl radical scavenging activity (DPPH) were used to fulfill the aim of the study. The addition of rice sourdough fermented with LAB was reflected in the chemical composition of the final baked good, improving its amount on bioactive compounds such as amino acids, mineral bioavailability, total phenols, and antioxidant activity. Total phenols and antioxidant activity increased their amount by 70.53% and 73.70%, respectively, meanwhile, lactic acid, minerals, and amino-acids increased their values at least twice. Thus, rice fermented with Lactobacilus spicheri DSM 15429 strain could be a tool to further increase the nutritional value of gluten-free baked products.

Biofuel Addition to Kerosene-A Way to Reduce the Level of Contamination

This study suggests a solution to a substantial dilemma in Iraqi society. The pollutants resulted from Kerosene combustion in the stonemasonry ovens, which emits variable types of pollutants to the air and products. Biofuels produced from edible food wastes have been added to kerosene at different percentages to reduce toxicity levels, most notably the lead portion in kerosene. The results of the study show that the kerosene biofuel blends are clean and free of lead and sulfur compounds, in addition to the availability of production potential. The use of food wastes in the production of biofuels is an economical solution to waste accumulation. The study was conducted on a stone kiln in Baghdad. Lead ratios were measured in kerosene samples and different proportions of kerosene-biofuels blends. The samples produced in the oven and two cases of the initial and final baking process were also analyzed. The results revealed that the process of mixing biofuels with kerosene reduces the proportion of lead, which is directly proportional to the proportion of biofuels, accompanied by an increase in the relative baking time (ineffective) due to the different calorific value of biofuels.

Textural and Sensory Features Changes of Gluten Free Muffins Based on Rice Sourdough Fermented with Lactobacillus spicheri DSM 15429.

Gluten free products available on the market have a low textural quality associated with high crumbly structure, low-flavor, aroma, poor mouthfeel, less appearance, in comparison with the conventional final baked products. The aim of this study was to assess the influence of rice sourdough fermented with Lactobacillus spicheri DSM 15429 strain on textural, volatile profile, and sensorial properties of gluten free muffins in order to obtain baked goods with improved quality characteristics. Lactobacillus spicheri is a novel strain isolated from industrial rice sourdough but unexploited for bakery products manufacturing. The results showed that Lactobacillus spicheri DSM 15429 was able to growth in the rice flour influencing the texture and the volatile profile of gluten free muffins as well as their sensory characteristics. Both, textural parameters and volatiles recorded significant differences comparing to muffins obtained with a spontaneously fermented rice sourdough. Hardness and cohesiveness decreased while springiness and resilience of gluten free muffins improved their values. The volatile profile of gluten free muffins was significantly improved by utilization of the rice sourdough fermented with Lactobacilus spicheri DSM 15429. 3-methylbutanal, 2-methylbutanal, acetophenone and limonene were the main volatile derivatives responsible for aroma and odor scores of sensory analysis.

Adhesion of Bread Dough to Solid Surfaces Under Controlled Heating: Balance Between the Rheological and Interfacial Properties of Dough

The adhesion of wheat dough affects many aspects of industrial baking, from kneading raw dough to the final baking process. In this work, an original method was developed to study the effect of temperature on the adhesive properties of bread dough in contact with a solid surface during heating. Using this approach, it will be possible to understand the factors that affect adhesion between dough and a baking surface, which will aid in developing methods to prevent dough from sticking. Overall, the dough's adhesion to a hydrophobic surface globally decreased with an increase in temperature from 35 to 97 °C, with the exception of the temperature range between 55 and 70 °C, in which the energy of adhesion increased slightly. Under these circumstances, the evolution of adhesion was primarily shaped by the rheological properties of the dough. However, when we used a solid surface with different surface energy, the results changed significantly, which suggests that the mechanisms of adhesion during heating are governed by a balance between the interfacial and bulk properties of the heated dough. The overall decrease in the adhesion of the dough to the hydrophobic glass surface may be explained by a decrease in dough hydrophobicity due to structural and chemical changes in the dough.

\u201cExpression of genes encoding protein disulfide isomerase (PDI) in cultivars and lines of common wheat with different baking quality of flour\u201d

BackgroundThe subject of this research was to investigate the level of expression of genes encoding protein disulfide isomerase (PDI) in cultivars and lines of wheat with different baking value of flour. PDI plays a key role in the formation of disulfide bonds in newly formed proteins. Each of cultivars and lines had a specific set of high molecular weight glutenin subunits (HMW-GS). Based on the presence of individual subunits, the potential baking value is predicted. Sometimes this value is not confirmed during technological analysis. Since there are cases where flour has a better or worse value than expected on the basis of the genotype, the expression of PDI genes was considered as a potential cause for discrepancies mentioned.ResultsAnalysis focused on three stages of grain development. The expression level of PDI genes was compared between wheat cultivars and lines with different genotype-phenotype combinations, which means diversified sets of HMW-GS combined with diversified qualitative classification. The highest expression level of PDI was noticed at early stage of grain development, which is consistent with the function of PDI. The expression level was evaluated by the real-time PCR technique.ConclusionResults obtained in this work did not allow for a clear statement of decisive significance of PDI in the context of shaping the final baking value. The results of this work contribute to an ever more in-depth understanding of the mechanisms governing baking value, and thus to the progress of the selection of new varieties with more beneficial properties.

Glycaemic index of wheat bread

Here, the concept and critical reviews concerning the glycaemic index are presented and the influence on human health with regard to the diets of various glycaemic indices are thoroughly reviewed. It is stated that wheat bread is regarded as high glycaemic index food, with some solutions having been proposed in order to reduce this indicator in three research areas: (i) the raw materials, (ii) the milling process, and (iii) bread‐making along with the post‐baking processes. Regarding the use of raw materials, future trends in bakery production might include the application of some plants that are rich in antioxidants, along with some selected, edible by‐products. Jet milling – with high air pressure – was proposed as a modification of the traditional method. With regard to bread‐making, together with the post‐baking process, it has been proposed that the kneading time should be reduced, along with extended fermentation, sourdough fermentation, reduced yeast quantity, decreasing bread volume, post‐baking processes with the application of freezing and frozen storage before final baking, and a combination of sourdough or dietary fibre with the freezing and frozen storage before final baking. Growing consumer demands have led to the search for more innovative ingredients. In this context, further studies on the impact of newly designed breads on the glycaemic index are required.

Pilot scale investigation of the relationship between baked good properties and wheat flour analytical values

Our objective was to assess the relationship between wheat flour analytical values and baked good properties based on equipment and processes near to those of mid-size bakery companies, including fermentation interruption. Thirty-four physical properties of rolls and breads were measured, and their correlation with 90 analytical properties of flour was investigated. In rolls, fermentation interruption led to a coarser crumb structure and a lower height/width ratio as compared to direct fermentation. This can be seen as a quality loss, which extent varied considerably depending on the flour. Our results suggest that using flours with a strong gluten network and high water absorption properties are most appropriate for fermentation interruption. Using a PLS regression, we identified three flour properties that had the highest overall influence on the final baked goods properties: flour hydration, dough stability, and elasticity/plasticity ratio.