Fig Trees Ficus Research Articles

Efficient agricultural drip irrigation inspired by fig leaf morphology

Irrigation is limited by water scarcity. Here, we show how a drip irrigation system inspired by the leaf of the fig tree Ficus religiosa (also known as the bodhi tree) can improve irrigation efficiency. The reverse curvature of the leaf regulates the convergence process of multiple water streams, while its long-tail apex allows for fast water drainage with the droplet separation centroid beyond the leaf apex. We explain why drip frequency increases after the break-up of contact line pinning at the apex tip by using scaling laws for drip volume and analyzing drainage dynamics. We build a drip irrigation emitter inspired by the bodhi leaf apex and compare the germination efficiency of wheat, cotton, and maize under different irrigation modes. These results show that the proposed bodhi-leaf-apex-mimetic (BLAM) drip irrigation can improve water saving while ensuring germination and seedling growth.

Floral scent of the Mediterranean fig tree: significant inter-varietal difference but strong conservation of the signal responsible for pollinator attraction

For thousands of years, humans have domesticated different plants by selecting for particular characters, often affecting less-known traits, including the volatile organic compounds (VOCs) emitted by these plants for defense or reproduction. The fig tree Ficus carica has a very wide range of varieties in the Mediterranean region and is selected for its traits affecting fruits, including pollination, but the effect of human-driven diversification on the VOCs emitted by the receptive figs to attract their pollinator (Blastophaga psenes) is not known. In the present study, VOCs from receptive figs of eight varieties in northern Morocco, were collected at different times within the manual pollination period and analyzed by gas chromatography-mass spectrometry. Genetic analyses using microsatellite loci were performed on the same varieties. Despite strong inter-varietal differences in the quantity and relative proportions of all VOCs, the relative proportions of the four pollinator-attractive VOCs showed limited variation among varieties. There was no significant correlation between genetic markers and chemical profiles of the different varieties. While diversification driven by humans has led to differences between varieties in VOC profiles, this paper suggests that throughout the process of domestication and varietal diversification, stabilizing selection has maintained a strong signal favoring pollinator attraction.

Figuring out fig tree evolved chemistry

Fig trees (Ficus carica), produce furanocoumarins, small organic molecules with various medicinal and agricultural applications. Villard et al., characterised the enzyme catalysing the first synthetic step in the production of these molecules. The authors also highlighted how this enzyme emerged recently and independently within the Ficus lineage through convergent evolution.

Phenotypic polymorphism, pomological and chemical characteristics of some local varieties of fig trees (Ficus carica L.) grown in Eastern Morocco

The fig tree (Ficus carica L.) is one of the earliest fruit trees cultivated in Morocco, especially in the north-eastern region; which is growing inextricably linked to our social and cultural heritage. This study concerns morpho-pomological and chemical parameters of five local fig varieties, namely: Aounk Hmam “AH”, Chetoui “CH”, Bounacer “BN”, Ghoudane “GH”, and Malha “MA”. Significant differences were observed among the studied fig cultivars for some of the parameters investigated. In particular, the average fruit weight that ranged from 29.72 g to 58g for MA and AH respectively. At the ripening stage, fruits “MA” show the best skin cracks, while fruits “AH” are distinguished by their ease of peeling.In terms of titratable acidity, “AH” has the lowest value, while “CH” has the highest level. For the sweetest and tastiest variety of figs, Brix readings (expressed as total soluble solids content) registred range between 27 - 35% respectively for the MA and GH . According to the results of the parameters evaluated, particularly the acidity and the Brix index, the best varieties worthy of consideration from an agricultural and industrial point of view are “AH” and “CH” cultivars.

Pollinating and non-pollinating fig wasps (Hymenoptera: Chalcidoidea) from Ficus elastica, the living root bridge tree of Meghalaya in northeast India

The Indian rubber fig tree Ficus elastica Roxb. ex Hornem. Moraceae is the constituent of the iconic living root bridges (LRBs) in Meghalaya, India, and is characterized by a highly specific mutualism between the fig and its pollinating agaonid fig wasp, in which the wasps breed within fig inflorescences. F. elastica is restricted to south and southeast Asia in its distribution. We identified the pollinating fig wasp as Platyscapa clavigera (Mayr 1885) which was first described from F. elastica in Bogor in 1885 and from Singapore in 2017. This is the first record of the pollinator (family Agaonidae) from F. elastica in Meghalaya, northeast India, in the westernmost portion of the fig’s range. We also discovered and identified in F. elastica, a non-pollinating fig wasp of the genus Micranisa which appears close to Micranisa ralianga Mathew and Balakrishnan 1981 (Pteromalidae). This fig wasp has not been earlier reported anywhere from the closed urn-shaped inflorescences (i.e. syconia) of F. elastica and was only described from the syconia of Ficus altissima Blume in 1981 from Meghalaya. Notes on the morphology of both fig wasps are provided and illustrated. The phenology and developmental cycle of F. elastica syconia are documented. Evidence of passive pollination was confirmed in F. elastica which sheds light on the evolution of character traits in figs and their wasps

More examples of breakdown the 1:1 partner specificity between figs and fig wasps

BackgroundThe obligate mutualism between fig trees (Ficus, Moraceae) and pollinating fig wasps (Agaonidae) is a model system for studying co-evolution due to its perceived extreme specificity, but recent studies have reported a number of examples of trees pollinated by more than one fig wasp or sharing pollinators with other trees. This will make the potential of pollen flow between species and hybridization more likely though only few fig hybrids in nature have been found. We reared pollinator fig wasps from figs of 13 Chinese fig tree species and established their identity using genetic methods in order to investigate the extent to which they were supporting more than one species of pollinator (co-pollinator).ResultsOur results showed (1) pollinator sharing was frequent among closely-related dioecious species (where pollinator offspring and seeds develop on different trees); (2) that where two pollinator species were developing in figs of one host species there was usually one fig wasp with prominent rate than the other. An exception was F. triloba, where its two pollinators were equally abundant; (3) the extent of co-pollinator within one fig species is related to the dispersal ability of them which is stronger in dioecious figs, especially in small species.ConclusionsOur results gave more examples to the breakdown of extreme specificity, which suggest that host expansion events where pollinators reproduce in figs other than those of their usual hosts are not uncommon among fig wasps associated with dioecious hosts. Because closely related trees typically have closely related pollinators that have a very similar appearance, the extent of pollinator-sharing has probably been underestimated. Any pollinators that enter female figs carrying heterospecific pollen could potentially generate hybrid seed, and the extent of hybridization and its significance may also have been underestimated.

Extraction and Analysis of Natural Rubber from the Latex of Ficus carica, Artocarpus heterophyllus and Polymer Analysis of Durio zibethinus

In tropical fruits such as durian (Durio zibethinus) and jackfruit (Artocarpus heterophyllus), only one quarter to one third of the fruit is edible. Finding more ways to industrially use the other components of the fruit can reduce the waste burned or dumped in landfills. Another fruit tree of interest that can also grow in Austria is the fig tree (Ficus carica). Currently, the fruits are the main product of that plant; however, components in the latex of the tree are of interest too. The latex is known to contain natural rubber, which could potentially be used for industrial applications. Jackfruit trees also produce latex, which contains natural rubber. In both cases, the natural rubber has different properties compared to the conventionally used rubber from the rubber tree (Hevea brasiliensis). This could provide new opportunities in various applications. Therefore, the purpose of this research is to analyze the properties of the natural rubber obtained from the jackfruit and fig trees. Additionally, durian fruit also produces a sticky liquid, so the same experiments were also carried out with durian samples. The experimental procedure included extraction with acetone and cyclohexane as well as polymer length determination with gel permeation chromatography and polymer analysis with differential scanning calorimetry. The results show that in both jackfruit and fig tree latex, there is natural rubber of similar polymer length. Durian pulp also contains a polymer; however, with these experiments, it could not be identified. Further research is required to identify the durian polymer and to confirm the results of this experiment.

EARLY GROWTH RESPONSE AND NUTRIENTS QUALITY OF FIG (Ficus carica L.) PLANTED ON BRIS SOIL EFFECTED BY CHICKEN MANURE AMENDMENTS

Allah S.W.T swears by the fig tree (Sura’ 95, al-Tin) in the holy Quran, for its values and practices. Recently, the fig tree (Ficus carica L.) has been introduced in Malaysia’s tropical weather as it grows well with maximum activity. Its root favors a well-drained type of soil, and since BRIS (Beach Ridges Interspersed with Swales) are dominated by sandy texture with proper water percolation, it has a high potential for fig planting. However, BRIS is known to have low nutrient holding capacity but can be improved with organic amendments. This study was carried out to determine the effects of various rates of chicken manure as amendments in improving the BRIS soil health for the growth of fig trees. The BRIS soil was amended with different rates of 10% (T2), 20% (T3), 30% (T4), and 50% (T5) of chicken manure and 0% (T1) as control. Three months old saplings were propagated through hardwood cuttings of variety BTM6 with five replications in each treatment. The growth response and nutrients quality of the fig trees were observed biweekly for three months after the transplant, and the nutrient contents of amended and non-amended showed significant differences at p<0.05. The survivability of the trees was 100%, and a significant difference was found between the treatments. BRIS soil with 40% chicken manure amendments (T4) showed superlative growth response with the highest number of branches, leaves, and fruits, thus provide higher yield production as compared to other treatments. From this study, BRIS soil that is known to be problematic can be improved with correct rates of organic amendments and can be used for fig cultivation.

Fighting injuries, fig exit, and dimorphism in two species of sycoryctine fig wasp (Chalcidoidea, Pteromalidae)

Similar to many vertebrate and invertebrate species, many fig wasp species are fighting other members of their species for mates. Fighting between the males of many non-pollinating fig wasp species involves injuries and fatalities. Studies have shown that large males fight for mates, whereas conspecific small males tend to adopt nonfighting, sneaky behaviors. To analyze male morphs in two non-pollinating fig wasps (Philotrypesis taida Wong & Shiao, 2018 and Sycorycteridea taipeiensis Wong & Shiao, 2018) associated with the fig tree Ficus benguetensis, the head and mandible allometry and injuries were examined as well as the morphologies of their heads and mandibles. Male fig wasps of these two nonpollinating species can be divided into two morphological groups according to their head and mandible shapes. Approximately 88% of the Philotrypesis and 62% of the Sycorycteridea males were injured and no males belonging to largest morphs were decapitated. Moreover, nearly 31% of the Philotrypesis and 45% of the Sycorycteridea males left their natal figs. No difference in injury level or male exit rate between the male morphs was observed. This study reveals slight morphological and behavioral differences that may hint towards different mating strategies among morphs.

Loss of top-down biotic interactions changes the relative benefits for obligate mutualists.

The collapse of mutualisms owing to anthropogenic changes is contributing to losses of biodiversity. Top predators can regulate biotic interactions between species at lower trophic levels and may contribute to the stability of such mutualisms, but they are particularly likely to be lost after disturbance of communities. We focused on the mutualism between the fig tree Ficus microcarpa and its host-specific pollinator fig wasp and compared the benefits accrued by the mutualists in natural and translocated areas of distribution. Parasitoids of the pollinator were rare or absent outside the natural range of the mutualists, where the relative benefits the mutualists gained from their interaction were changed significantly away from the plant's natural range owing to reduced seed production rather than increased numbers of pollinator offspring. Furthermore, in the absence of the negative effects of its parasitoids, we detected an oviposition range expansion by the pollinator, with the use of a wider range of ovules that could otherwise have generated seeds. Loss of top-down control has therefore resulted in a change in the balance of reciprocal benefits that underpins this obligate mutualism, emphasizing the value of maintaining food web complexity in the Anthropocene.

Genetic selection of fig tree (Ficus carica L.) varieties using phenotypic characteristics of rooting and development of softwood cutting

Genetic selection of fig tree (Ficus carica L.) varieties using phenotypic characteristics of rooting and development of softwood cutting

Variation in trophic cascade strength is triggered by top–down process in an ant–wasp‐fig system

Changes in the strength of trophic cascades over time have been associated with dramatic shifts in community structure and function. However, the pattern, process, and potential underlying mechanism of temporal variation in trophic cascades remains relatively unexplored. A top–down trophic cascade has been documented for the effects of predacious weaver ants Oecophylla smaragdina on the success of fig tree Ficus racemosa seed production. Ants cause high mortality of non‐pollinating fig wasps Sycophaga mayri that parasitize fruits, leading to greater success for the pollinating fig wasp–fig tree mutualists. Here, using a design in which pairs of branches were selected on a tree, and ants were excluded from one of each pair, we quantified the magnitude of the trophic cascade in the cool–dry, hot–dry and rainy (hot–wet) seasons in Xishuangbanna, southwest China. We also recorded the daily behavioral dynamics of ants and fig wasps in different seasons and analyzed the correlation between behavioral, activity and trophic cascade strength. We found that the strength of the trophic cascade was strong in the hot–dry season, diminished in the rainy season and disappeared in the cool–dry season in this system. The strength of species interactions between ants and non‐pollinating fig wasps, is positively correlated with trophic cascade strength, indicating that trophic cascade strength is determined by a top–down process when the community is well established. Moreover, because pollinating fig wasps, Ceratosolen fusciceps, play a central role in the establishment of fig wasp communities, when C. fusciceps wasps are absent, the community quickly disassembles as is the case in the cool–dry season. In summary, the strength of the trophic cascade is triggered by top–down processes, however, the occurrence of the trophic cascade is determined by a keystone species that plays a central role in assembly of the community.

An ancient and a recent colonization of islands by an Australian sap‐feeding insect

AbstractAimTo assess the genetic structure, biogeography, and the potential for speciation, of a highly host‐specific insect pest with mainland and island populations.LocationEast coast of Australia, Lord Howe Island (LHI), and New Zealand.MethodsWe focussed on Mycopsylla fici, a plant sap‐feeding insect host‐specific to the fig tree Ficus macrophylla. We genotyped 152 insects from across the natural and extended host plant range at 14 microsatellite loci and analysed the data using standard population genetics statistics, Discriminant Analysis of Principal Components, genetic autocorrelation, and two Bayesian clustering approaches.ResultsGenetic analyses revealed that the northeastern Australian mainland population (Brisbane) is the centre of genetic diversity. Northeastern and southeastern (Sydney) mainland populations are genetically differentiated and interconnected in a stepping‐stone pattern. The LHI population is the most distinct genetically and Bayesian estimates indicated that the most recent colonization occurred c. 2,000‐17,500 years ago from a northeastern mainland origin. In contrast, the New Zealand population is little differentiated from the Sydney population and probably diverged by colonization within the past 200 years.Main conclusionsThe strong differentiation in nuclear microsatellites mirrors previous evidence for divergence of the LHI population from both mtDNA and endosymbiont DNA. The LHI population may be undergoing speciation from the mainland populations, with an oceanic barrier to gene flow. In contrast, the geographically isolated population in Auckland represents a far more recent colonization reflecting the contemporary naturalization of the plant host in New Zealand.

A new species of Eustigmaeus (Acari: Prostigmata: Stigmaeidae) from Vietnam

A new species of the genus Eustigmaeus (Acari: Stigmaeidae), E. vietnamiensis sp. nov. is described from the bark of fig tree ( Ficus sp.) in Cat Tien National Park, Vietnam. The mite family Stigmaeidae is recorded from Vietnam for the first time.

Detection of differentially methylated regions of irradiated fig tree selections

Fig tree (Ficus carica L.) breeding programs using conventional methods, such as directed crosses, to obtain new cultivars, are unworkable in many countries, including Brazil. Consequently, genetic breeding through mutagenesis has emerged as an important line of research that can improve this crop, and be a significant source of information about this species and assist in the implementation of propagation projects and appropriate management. The aim of this study was to verify the existence of epigenetic variability attributable to DNA methylation in irradiated fig selections when compared both to each other and to the main commercial cultivar, “Roxo-de-Valinhos”, which had previously used methylation-sensitive amplified polymorphism (MSAP) and DNA sequencing to detect the position of polymorphic regions, analyzable by bioinformatic tools. The sequencing of DNA, isolated from the differentially methylated sites, makes it possible to observe different patterns of methylation by sequencing the treated DNA with sodium bisulfite in the coding regions of regulatory genes active in the development, and fruit ripening stages. Furthermore, they have been found in the mitochondrial DNA of treatments which regulate the supply of energy in Adenosine triphosphate (ATP) form in plants. Closely related to their development, they justify the different phenotypes found in both fruit and plant growth that have suffered stress due to exposure to gamma radiation. Thus, future studies on gene expression in treatments have emerged as an extremely important strategy for understanding these complex regulatory systems, which may lead to the identification of genes of agricultural interest for the fig tree crop, and allow for manipulation and subsequent propagation of improved crops for commercial purposes.

Description of two new species from China in a new species group of the fig wasp genus Sycophaga Westwood (Hymenoptera: Chalcidoidea: Agaonidae: Sycophaginae).

A new species group, the brevis-group, is established for two new species of the fig wasp genus Sycophaga Westwood (Hymenoptera: Agaonidae) reared from the monoecious fig tree Ficus orthoneura (Moraceae, Ficus, subgenus Urostigma) in China. The two new species, S. brevis n. sp. and S. diutius n. sp. are described and illustrated, supplemented by COI sequence data. In contrast with two other species groups newly recognized in Sycophaga, the explorator-group for species previously classified in Apocryptophagus Ashmead and the sycomori-group for other species previously classified in Sycophaga, the brevis-group is uniquely defined by the long pronotum of females and a Ficus host within the subgenus Urostigma.

Floral constraint resulting from intersexual mimicry in a gynodioecious fig tree

Fig trees (Ficus: Moraceae) are pollinated by female fig wasps (Agaonidae) whose larvae develop inside galled flowers of unusual inflorescences (figs). Most fig trees also support communities of non-pollinating fig wasps. Figs of different species display great size variation and contain tens to tens of thousands of flowers. Around one-half the species of fig trees have the gynodioecious breeding system, where female trees have figs that produce seeds and male trees have figs that support development of pollinators. Mutual mimicry between receptive male and female figs ensures that pollinators enter female figs, even though the insects will die without reproducing, but the need to give no sex-specific cues to the pollinators may constrain differences in size between receptive male and female figs. We compared relationships between inflorescence size and some measures of reproductive success in male and female figs of Ficus montana grown under controlled conditions in the presence of the pollinator Kradibia tentacularis and its main parasitoid Sycoscapter sp. indesc. Female figs that contained more flowers produced more seeds, but male figs did not increase the production of female pollinator K. tentacularis fig wasps in proportion of the flower number. Although more flowers were galled by the pollinators in male figs containing more female flowers, the high larval mortality caused by parasitism and nutritional limitation prevented the increase in the production of adult female offspring. Selection may favor the increase in flower numbers within figs in female plants of F. montana, but contrarily constrain this attribute in male plants.

English

Ambient temperatures influence many aspects of insect behavior and reproduction, and limit their distribution and abundance. Small, delicate insects such as the fig wasps (Agaonidae) that pollinate fig trees rapidly succumb to heat stress when outside figs. We compared survivorship and reproductive success of the fig wasp Kradibia tentacularis pollinator of the Asian fig tree Ficus montana in three glasshouses maintained at different temperatures during the brief period when foundress females are laying their eggs after their entry into figs (means of 17, 21 and 27°C, respectively). This temperature range had no significant effect on speed of foundress death, or their likelihood of re-emergence. Similarly, fig wasp offspring production were unaffected by temperatures at the time of oviposition in male figs, as was seed production in female figs, although the proportion of failed galls changed marginally. The range of temperatures to which the fig wasps were exposed reflected conditions under a tropical forest canopy and their general lack of responsiveness suggests that the relatively buffered environment within their host figs means that only extreme temperature conditions will influence them once they have entered the plant. Key words: Agaonidae, climate change, Ficus, oviposition, sex ratio, thermal tolerance.

Analysis of Global DNA Methylation in Irradiated Fig Selections

Fruits from fig tree (Ficus carica L.) are economically important worldwide, and rank among the top 20 fruits exported by Brazil. However, due to particular features in its floral structure, classical plant breeding procedures that involve hybridization are not possible. Thus, genetic improvement of figs by using mutagens is an important line of research. In this study, five fig selections based on their interesting agronomic features were used. Genetic modifications associated with mutations were not detected by molecular markers. Therefore, it was suggested that certain phenotypes could have resulted from epigenetic modifications. The best characterized epigenetic modification is DNA methylation, which can switch genes on or off by acting as a signal. After epigenetic polymorphisms were identified by methylation sensitive amplified polymorphism (MSAP) molecular markers, we quantified the level of DNA methylation in fig selections irradiated with gamma rays and compared it to levels in the commercial cultivar “Roxo-de-Valinhos.” This was achieved by analyzing the global methylation using an Imprint Methylated DNA Quantification kit. The results showed that there were significant differences in global methylation following different treatments, indicating that irradiation was an abiotic factor that could alter the epigenome of plants. Since the material used as a control was also found to be methylated, demethylation of the polymorphic genomic material might account for the phenotypic variations observed among different treatment groups. These results suggest that irradiation is an external factor that is capable of altering epigenetic patterns.

The impact of fig wasps (Chalcidoidea), new to the Mediterranean, on reproduction of an invasive fig tree Ficus microcarpa (Moraceae) and their potential for its biological control

Natural enemies that reduce plant reproductive success are often utilized for biological control of invasive species. Reproduction in fig trees depends on host-specific fig wasp pollinators that develop in galled ovules, but there are also many species of non-pollinating fig wasps (NPFWs) that reduce seed and pollinator numbers. Fig wasps associated with an invasive Asian fig tree, Ficus microcarpa (Moraceae), were surveyed around the Mediterranean. Eight NPFW species are now known from the area, three of which are newly-recorded. The impacts of the two most prevalent ovule galling NPFW species (both Pteromalidae, Epichrysomallinae) on the tree’s reproduction were compared: Odontofroggatia galili Wiebes is widely-introduced, whereas Meselatus bicolor Chen has not been recorded previously outside its native range. Both gall-forming NPFWs significantly reduce seed and pollinator production, but M. bicolor has a far greater impact, entirely preventing seeds and pollinators from developing in the figs it occupies. M.bicolor has only been recorded from F. microcarpa and has the potential to be a valuable biological control agent in other countries outside the Mediterranean where F. microcarpa has become invasive.