FIFA World Cup Finals Research Articles

A comparative examination of World Cup Champions of European and American origin of national football players in terms of "relative age effect"

This study aimed to analysis the birth date distributions of the champion players between the years 1930-2022 to determine whether the FIFA World Cup champion national team football players between the years 1930-2022 were affected by the "Relative Age Effect" phenomenon. The universe of the research consisted of the national teams that were champions in the 1930-2022 FIFA World Cup Finals. The samples consisted of the football player group of the national teams that won the championship. The model of the research was determined as "Basic Qualitative Research". The data collection technique in the research was determined as "Document Analysis". The data analysis was made according to the Miles & Huberman model, which is a descriptive analysis form. In the study, the information of the athletes was detailed by looking at the squad structure for the FIFA World Cup champion national team football players between the years 1930-2022. In the highest level of professional football, it has been seen that the champion national team football players are numerically close to each other in terms of "relative age effect". As a result, it has been observed that the relative age effect in senior football decreases with increasing age. It was shown that the relative age effect in professional elite national teams changed negatively due to the high number of football players born in the second half of the year. In this case, it was not a negative situation for football players who transition to professionalism and reach the elite level, being born in the last months of the year. Looking at the intercontinental comparison, even considering the different football culture and structure, it has been revealed that late-born athletes have caught up with their peers at a professional level and even left them behind.

Diversifying the fan experience and securitising crowd management: a longitudinal analysis of fan park facilities at 15 football mega events between 2002 and 2019

ABSTRACT Rationale This article explores the development, use and impact of fan parks in host cities of men’s football mega events, constructed as temporary commercial sites where fans congregate to watch matches on large screens and partake in other forms of entertainment. Approach This study draws on ethnographic, observational, interview and focus group data, exploring perspectives of fans, volunteers, organisers, journalists, police and security personnel, totalling 212 respondents at five FIFA World Cup finals and ten other confederation tournaments. Findings This paper reveals that fans have increasingly engaged with such provision where available, relative to the degree of cultural resonance, accessibility, affordability, security and the suitability of facilities. However, these fan parks remain conspicuously absent in confederation events beyond Europe. Practical implications The research shows that fan parks can help diversify the fan experience, allowing users to interact with supporters from across the world in defined spaces. They also contribute to crowd management, enabling authorities to contain fans, confine their movement, monitor alcohol consumption and control behaviour. Research contribution This longitudinal study examines the emergence and development of fan parks at 15 events in five continents, analysing their impact on the fan experience and the securitisation of crowd management.

The soft power–soft disempowerment nexus: the case of Qatar

There are four areas in which soft power is open to critical scrutiny. First, research has centred on large and/or developed nations, notably in North America, Europe, east Asia and the BRICs. Second, scholars have called for greater clarity of the concept, noting that it lacks clear explanation of how instances of attraction equate to various power outcomes. Third, others suggest Joseph Nye developed an Americanized-centric understanding of soft power, and hence a narrow account of what constitutes ‘attraction’. Finally, research has failed to examine how states' soft power attempts can backfire, leading to what we call ‘soft disempowerment’. Drawing on the case of Qatar—with a particular focus on the state's acquisition of the 2022 FIFA World Cup finals—we seek to offer responses to these criticisms. We do this by refining the concept of soft power to take account of variegated power outcomes, and by focusing on a small state and a non-American context, in order to explore the intersections of soft power and soft disempowerment. In doing so, we introduce the ‘soft power–soft disempowerment nexus’ which, we go on to argue, affords an analytical framework for examining how soft power works and how it may be hampered through negative international scrutiny.

Amnesia and animosity: an assessment of soccer in the States

The twentieth FIFA World Cup Finals, hosted by Brazil in 2014, provides perspective on the game’s global growth since the inaugural tournament held in Uruguay in 1930. The fifth such tournament since the United States hosted in 1994 and the tenth in which the United States has participated, the status of the sport there remains anomalous, with compromised if not marginalized status. Elite levels of the sport, especially the Men’s National Team, historically struggle for relevance in popular culture – despite widespread youth participation and the record of success achieved by the Women’s National Team. This essay seeks to identify the current state of the sport in the United States as characterized by amnesia and antagonism, a conflicted blend of cultural superiority and inferiority complexes played out every four years when the nation asks itself if soccer matters.

Sports mega-events, soft power and soft disempowerment: international supporters’ perspectives on Qatar’s acquisition of the 2022 FIFA World Cup finals

ABSTRACTThrough the use of document analysis, field work and semi-structured interviews at five major tournaments in Asia, North America, Europe and South America, the paper examines the perspectives of international football supporters on the Fédération Internationale de Football Association’s (FIFA) decision to award the 2022World Cup finals to the State of Qatar. The paper is separated into five sections. First we ground Qatar’s sporting strategy within the concept of ‘soft power’, as well as pinpoint the negative consequences that have manifest since the state’s acquisition of the 2022 finals. Second, we disclose and defend our chosen data collection strategy. Third, we uncover and discuss our results with reference to three key themes: the state’s suitability as a football destination; the dubious awarding of the 2022 World Cup; and, Qatar’s cultural backdrop and domestic policies. Fourth, we align our findings to Qatar’s foreign policy intentions and ‘soft disempowerment’ consequences, locating in the process the opportunities and challenges that accompany the state’s hosting of the 2022 finals. We conclude by reflecting upon the contribution we have made here, as well as acknowledging the importance of Qatar for current and future sports mega-event research.

The effects of ball possession status on physical and technical indicators during the 2014 FIFA World Cup Finals

ABSTRACTThis study examined the effect of high- (HPBPT) and low-percentage ball possession (LPBPT) on physical and technical indicators during 2014 FIFA World Cup matches. This would enable a regression model to be constructed to further understand the impact of different ball possession (BP) strategies on match performance. Data were collected from 346 international soccer players using a multiple-camera computerised tracking system. Although players in HPBPT covered lower distances (P < 0.01) in total and at low speed compared to LPBPT, this produced a trivial effect size (ES). However, they covered similar distances (P > 0.05) at medium and high speeds. Players in LPBPT covered more distance without BP but less with BP than HPBPT (P < 0.01; ES large). All positions in LPBPT spent less time in the opposing half and attacking third than the players in HPBPT (P < 0.01; ES small–moderate), but all positions in HPBPT completed more short and medium passes than LPBPT (P < 0.01; ES moderate). Players in HPBPT produced more solo runs into the attacking third and penalty area than LPBPT (P < 0.05, ES small). The equation to predict BP from physical and technical indicators highlighted the importance of distances covered (total, with and without BP), time spent in the attacking third and successful short passes during matches. In practical terms, high or low BP does not influence the activity patterns of international matches although HPBPT spend more time in offensive areas of the pitch.

The influence of the extra-time period on physical performance in elite soccer

The aim of this study was to examine the influence of extra-time periods on physical performance profiles in elite soccer. Match performance data were collected from players (n=99) during the 2014 FIFA World Cup Finals (FWC). Performance was analysed per minute for total distance covered and distance run in 3 categories: ≤11.0 km. h-1 (low), 11.1-14.0 km. h-1 (medium) and ≥14.1 km. h-1 (high-speed). Additional variables such as the time spent in low, medium and high activities, maximal running speed and the number of sprints per minute were also assessed. Analysis of players who completed the demands of the full 120 min of playing time revealed that total distance, high-intensity running, top speed and high intensity activities declines by 12%, 18%, 3% and 15% respectively, from the first to the second half of the match (P<0.01). In contrast, low intensity activities increase in the second half and especially in the extra-time period in comparison with the first half (P<0.05). The reduction in overall performance is much more acute in extra-time. All of the physical markers studied showed a decline of 15-20% during the extra-time period in comparison to the first half of playing time (P<0.01). As a result, it is vital that technical and physical coaching staff are aware of the decline in this game phase and consequently, influence the team from a tactical and physical focus within a training perspective.

The Long-Run Impacts of the World Cup

We empirically investigate whether there is any statistically and economically meaningful correlation between the success a nation’s soccer team in the FIFA World Cup Finals and that nation’s real per-capita GDP growth. Using an unbalanced panel of countries from 1950 through 2004, we find that, for certain continents, there are non-trivial correlations between the World Cup finals, World Cup success, and real per-capita GDP growth. In Europe, North America, and South America, real per-capita GDP growth declines by approximately one percentage point in the years during which the World Cup Finals occur. Moreover, we find that in Africa, North America, and South America, the further a nation’s team advances in the month-long tournament the further the decline in real per-capita GDP growth. We estimate the contemporaneous impacts of the 2002 World Cup finals on per-capita income and a counterfactual real per-capita GDP series incorporating the varying levels of success in all of the World Cup finals held during our sample period.

Fifa World Cup Finals: Catalyst for Infrastructural Development? A Case Study of South Africa 2010

Fifa World Cup Finals: Catalyst for Infrastructural Development? A Case Study of South Africa 2010

‘The successes and challenges of hosting the 2010 FIFA World Cup’: the case of Cape Town, South Africa

In 2010 the FIFA World Cup finals were held on the African Continent for the first time with South Africa chosen to host the month-long event. Crucially, the hosting of such a prestigious tournament was seen as a chance for South Africa to prove to the world that as a developing nation it could successfully host an event of this magnitude. Using contemporary reports and incorporating findings from in-depth interviews conducted with national and regional event and destination stakeholders, this paper explores the challenges and successes of hosting the 2010 World Cup in South Africa. Primarily, focusing on the experiences of the host City of Cape Town, this study investigates the branding opportunities and challenges associated with the 2010 tournament as well as actual impact and legacy of the event on social factors, such as nation building, social cohesion and racial integration.

Changes in a Top-Level Soccer Referee’s Training, Match Activities, and Physiology Over an 8-Year Period: A Case Study

Athlete case studies have often focused on the training outcome and not the training process. Consequently, there is a dearth of information detailing longitudinal training protocols, yet it is the combined assessment of both outcome and process that enhances the interpretation of physical test data. We were provided with a unique opportunity to assess the training load, physical match performance, and physiological fitness of an elite soccer referee from the referee's final season before attaining full-time, professional status (2002) until the season when he refereed the 2010 UEFA Champions League and FIFA World Cup finals. An increased focus on on-field speed and gym-based strength training was observed toward the end of the study period and longitudinal match data showed a tendency for decreased total distances but an increased intensity of movements. Laboratory assessments demonstrated that VO2max remained stable (52.3 vs 50.8 mL·kg-1·min-1), whereas running speed at the lactate threshold (14.0 vs 12.0 km·h-1) and running economy (37.3 vs 43.4 mL·kg-1·min-1) both improved in 2010 compared with 2002.

‘Who wants to make aloo gobi when you can bend it like Beckham?’ British Asian females and their racialised experiences of gender and identity in women's football

Capturing the football frenzy of the 2002 FIFA World Cup Finals in Japan and South Korea, the film Bend It Like Beckham hit the British movie screens. The film is about Jess, a young Sikh girl, who dreams of playing football for England. Although the film helped to raise the public visibility of British Asian girls who play football in this country, worryingly, it also reproduced the popular belief that playing sport is seen to be antithetical to British Asian family traditions, culture and religion. This mirrors much of the wider research about British Asian males as it is believed, despite the rich diversity of British Asian leagues, teams and football networks, that playing sport at elite levels is not as important to British Asians as following traditional routes of success through the educational system. In this article, I am critical about the essentialist and stereotypical nature of past research that mostly serves to render invisible the multiplicity of British Asian females' experiences. Adopting a feminist conceptualisation of difference and intersectionality, I explore the vicissitudes of British Asian females' racialized experience of gender and identity. I argue that British Asian females' interpretations of ‘femininity’ does not necessarily fit into a simple polarity, that is as either ‘traditional’ (the ability to undertake domestic chores and behave in an ‘honourable’ fashion) or ‘modern’ (assimilating to ‘English’ values and lifestyles, e.g. going out and socializing with boys). Their identities relating to their Asianness and femaleness are increasingly hybrid and fluid, across time and space.

Contrasting Representations of Englishness During FIFA World Cup Finals

Football and English national identity have been interlinked for over a century. The increased display of the St George Cross rather than the Union flag when the England team compete in international football competitions has been linked to a rise in a specifically English national consciousness. Academics have assumed this to be a response to advancing European integration and political devolution within contemporary Britain without providing much empirical evidence for such claims. However, evidence from qualitative discourse analysis of British daily newspaper coverage of FIFA World Cup Finals suggests that Englishness has always been banally depicted as a multifaceted concept in relation to football. First, Englishness has long been and still is used to refer to Britishness and vice versa in World Cup coverage. Second, World Cup football correspondents have often referred to strongly felt regional and local divisions within English society that coexist with the idea of an overarching English national consciousness. This paper forms part of a wider investigation into the complexities of defining Englishness through football fandom practices.

Blogging the 2006 FIFA World Cup Finals

This study focuses on the use of new technologies by the sports-media complex, looking specifically at the 2006 FIFA World Cup Finals. Combining the world’s single largest sports media event with one of the most current, complex forms of Web-based communication, this article explores extent to which football fans embedded in Germany used the Internet to blog their World Cup experiences. Various categories of blog sites were identified, including independent bloggers, bloggers using football-themed Web sites, and blogs hosted on corporate-sponsored platforms. The study shows that the anticipated “democratizing potential” of blogging was not evident during Germany 2006. Instead, blogging acted as a platform for corporations, which, employing professional journalists, told the fans’ World Cup stories.

Fishing for community: England fans at the 2006 FIFA World Cup

This essay intends to provide an illustrative application of contemporary theorizations of community in the context of England football fans presence in Germany for the 2006 FIFA World Cup finals. Drawing upon Maffesoli’s concept of the neo‐tribe, and Scott Lash’s sense of the postmodern reflexive community, the travelling groups of England fans are presented as a series of fleeting, performative ‘communities’. The sense of temporality and consumerist desire for belonging which is revealed builds on Zygmunt Bauman’s notion of the ‘cloakroom community’ which provides a metaphor for the gatherings conjured by consumer society, and associated events such as the FIFA World Cup finals.

Lord, Don't Stop the Carnival

Trinidad and Tobago played in the men's football FIFA World Cup Finals in summer 2006 in Germany, becoming the smallest qualifier, according to population, in the history of the World Cup. In this article, the questions are posed of how such a small nation has achieved this and what the contribution of Jack Warner has been to this story. The analysis is informed by a critical, investigative framework that combines sociological synthesis with qualitative forms of reportage (both academic and journalistic) and interpretation, documentary sources and focused observation (at sporting encounters), and interviews and dialogues with FIFA personnel. The article demonstrates that the football administrations of Trinidad and Tobago and the regional governing body CONCACAF have been used to further the personal and business ambitions of individuals and that the carnivalesque public face of the sport masks processes and dynamics of self-aggrandizement and individual profiteering.

Analysis of passing sequences, shots and goals in soccer

Early research into how goals were scored in association football (Reep and Benjamin, 1968) may have shaped the tactics of British football. Most coaches have been affected, to a greater or lesser extent, by the tactics referred to as the “long-ball game” or “direct play”, which was a tactic employed as a consequence of this research. Data from these studies, published in the late 1960s, have been reconfirmed by analyses of different FIFA World Cup tournaments by several different research groups. In the present study, the number of passes that led to goals scored in two FIFA World Cup finals were analysed. The results conform to that of previous research, but when these data were normalized with respect to the frequency of the respective lengths of passing sequences, there were more goals scored from longer passing sequences than from shorter passing sequences. Teams produced significantly more shots per possession for these longer passing sequences, but the strike ratio of goals from shots is better for “direct play” than for “possession play”. Finally, an analysis of the shooting data for successful and unsuccessful teams for different lengths of passing sequences in the 1990 FIFA World Cup finals indicated that, for successful teams, longer passing sequences produced more goals per possession than shorter passing sequences. For unsuccessful teams, neither tactic had a clear advantage. It was further concluded that the original work of Reep and Benjamin (1968), although a key landmark in football analysis, led only to a partial understanding of the phenomenon that was investigated.