Field Of Forensic Anthropology Research Articles

The taphonomic effects of long-term burial in the South African Highveld.

Taphonomy studies the environmental effects on remains from the time of deposition to the time of recovery and has been integrated into the field of forensic anthropology. The changes to skeletal remains are dependent on the method of disposal and the surrounding environment. This study focused on buried remains where the type and chemical composition of the soil and the microorganisms present need to be considered. The aim was to investigate the type, frequency, and correlations of the taphonomic alterations of buried domestic pigs. Six taphonomic alterations were observed which included depositional staining, adipocere formation, bone weathering, acidic soil corrosion, and plant, and animal activity. Depositional staining, weathering and plant activity were the most common alterations followed by adipocere which was present on 92.3% of the remains. The bones were mostly stained dark brown and brown; however, the trunk region was the only region to present with black staining. The right sides were darker than the left due to the body positioning as most pigs were placed on their right sides and thus were in direct contact with the cadaver decomposition island. Additionally, the right sides presented with more adipocere as well as increased plant activity suggesting that the soil retained water. Darker stains were correlated with a more complete skeleton as adipocere provides some protection. The study confirms that there are various complicated relationships between different taphonomic alterations. A good understanding of them is needed in forensic anthropology to assist in reconstructing the events that occur after death.

Contribution of Anatomy in Forensic Age Evaluation: A Systematic Review.

The field of forensic anthropology is characterised by its ongoing development and growth. Forensic anatomy is a burgeoning discipline that focuses on the analysis and identification of both preserved and unpreserved human body parts, both in deceased individuals and the living. This subject plays a crucial role in establishing the four key factors of forensic anthropology, namely sex, age, race, and height. The objective of this research endeavour was to evaluate the significance of anatomical information in the process of forensic age estimation. The researchers established the inclusion criteria in accordance with the globally recognised Population, Intervention, Comparison, Outcome(PICOS) framework, as advised by the Preferred Reporting Items for Systematic Reviews and Meta-Analyses (PRISMA) recommendations. The research included many methodologies in order to ascertain the age. Upon conducting a comprehensive review of the existing literature pertaining to anatomical knowledge in the field of forensic age estimate, we have identified many notable applications. These include the utilisation of various anatomical features such as the dental pulp chamber, fingerprints, acetabulum, sternal end of the fourth rib, as well as hand and wrist bones for the purpose of age estimation. It is important for anatomists and other forensic scientists to engage in collaborative efforts to facilitate the exchange of ideas and ensure thorough investigations. This cooperation is particularly crucial in areas where anatomical sciences play a significant role in forensic science and investigation. Nevertheless, in order to mitigate the potential for estimating error, it is still advisable to use a multi-factorial evaluation approach that involves examining many body areas.

Method for Quantitative Assessment of Olecranon Fossa Using 3D Hand-held Laser Scanner in the Field of Forensic Anthropology

The study is based on a creation of virtual model of olecranon fossa through 3D visualization and its usage as a sex discriminant. The study was focused on an assessment of 135 complete humeri from 47 females and 88 males. The surface of olecranon fossa was captured in a 3D image, using a Hand-held Laser Scanner (FastSCAN). The result was a 3D shape comprising two tetrahedrons with a common apex and a common lateral face. This 3D model was determined by five landmarks: the most superior point of the olecranon fossa, the most lateral point of the olecranon fossa seen on the posterior surface, the most medial point of the olecranon fossa, the point on the inferior edge of the olecranon fossa, directly in the middle, and the deepest point into the fossa. Therefore, the volume of the virtual model was equal to the total of the volumes of these two tetrahedrons. The results were processed with SPSS 17.0 using Discriminant Function Analysis. The percentage of cases classified correctly is 92.5% according to the sex determination. This study demonstrates a 3D method which can be used successfully for sex determination, especially in case of highly fragmented bones that impede traditional anthropometric analyses.

Corpse identification in mass disasters and other violence: the ethical challenges of a humanitarian approach.

In October 2022, the Centre for Ethics of Yenepoya University hosted a national workshop entitled: "Respect for human dignity of the unidentified dead from mass disasters and other violence: strategies for the ethical management of biological samples and personal data". The aim was to explore and share experience and ethical considerations regarding the management and identification of human remains in the event of disasters, with the purpose to arrive at a general consensus about what constitutes the ethical foundation of the management of unidentified human remains in forensic practice and, in particular, contextualizing this in India. The main ethical consideration that emerged was tracing the missing and identifying the dead are crucial to maintaining or restoring basic human rights and responsible relief activities. Identification is not only an organizational and scientific achievement but, regardless of circumstances, also necessarily and always an activity with significant political, epistemic, and philosophical relevance and consequence. In India, it could be important to consider new legal provisions for the management of human samples so that this would provide a starting point for the treatment of human remains managed for forensic purposes with uniformity in the country. Another important step in which governments should take part regards the involvement and education of the general public to develop their interest in this important goal. In the field of forensic anthropology, artificial intelligence can support, through the use of algorithms, the decision-making process that leads to the identification of the victim or its remains. Furthermore, they can be used to extract new knowledge from huge databases and shorten identification through computer automation of data binding activities. Applying artificial intelligence tools in forensic sciences to collect new information from massive datasets to enhance knowledge, and reduce human subjectivity and errors, provides a greater scientific basis that could improve the strength of the evidence and support the admissibility of expert evidence. In light of the general lack of national/international guidance about ethical oversight for identification and care of human remains, the fact that regulations are frequently not adequate to govern ethical aspects, we hope that an internationally recognized body should develop such guidance in collaboration with relevant organizations.

Potential role of the Sella Turcica x-ray imaging aspects for sex estimation in the field of Forensic anthropology: a systematic review and metanalysis

Abstract Several studies have evaluated the parameters of normality of the Sella Turcica (ST), which is important face to different craniofacial syndromes that may affect this structure. Therefore, this research summarized the scientific evidence on the role of ST in the sex estimation of non-syndromic individuals. The research protocol was registered (PROSPERO # CRD42021256469), followed by an electronic search in six databases (PubMed, LILACS, Web of Science, Scopus, EMBASE, LIVIVO) and gray literature (Google scholar, OpenGrey). Meta-analysis of linear (width, length, height, and diameter) and volumetric measurements, in addition to an assessment of risk of bias (RoB) and certainty of evidence, were performed. After the screening of 986 articles, 13 were evaluated by meta-analysis (1307 males and 1231 females). In subgroup analysis, females had lower values ​​for width (lateral radiograph; −0.67 mm; P = 0.040), length (computed tomography; −0.23 mm; P = 0.020), and diameter (computed tomography; −0.27 mm; P < 0.001) compared to males. There was no statistically significant difference regarding height (P = 0.95), area (P = 0.72), and volume (P = 0.21). Most studies exhibited moderate RoB, and the certainty of evidence of the outcomes was very low. In this review, significant differences were observed between the sexes for the length and diameter of the ST; however, the heterogeneity of the studies must be considered. Key Points

Agreement in Sexing and Estimating Stature in Human Skeletal Remains

Forensic anthropology involves the application of anthroposcopic and anthropometric techniques to analyze human skeletal remains. This research outlines the assessment of a set of human skeletal remains for characteristics of sex and stature using forensic anthropological techniques to conclude whether various bones in a human skeleton are in agreement regarding these characteristics. The data for this study was collected using sliding calipers, spreading calipers, a soft measuring tape, and an osteometric board. In addition to the anthropometric data collected for statistical analysis, anthroposcopic data was also used to visually assess the individual. After the data collection concluded, various methods were applied for assessing sex and estimating stature that are used by a multitude of researchers in the field of forensic anthropology. Of the studied individual, the sex was determined to be female and the stature found in the range of five foot five to five foot six inches as determined by a majority of the results. Albeit being affected by some limitations, the study contributed to knowledge in the application of assessment methods for these two characteristics and how well various bones agreed regarding the sex and stature of the individual.

Stature Estimation from Femur and Tibia Bone Using Regression Equation Method: A Pilot Study

Anthropometry plays a crucial role in the field of forensic anthropology, particularly in the identification of human remains. Among the various parameters used for personal identification, stature holds significant importance. It is a key factor in medico-legal investigations, especially when dealing with unknown fragmentary and mutilated remains. The objective of present pilot study was to develop a mathematical formula for estimating human stature based on the measurement of long bones, specifically the femur and tibia. A sample of 150 randomly selected girls, aged between 18 and 24 years, was chosen from Nagpur’s Institute of Forensic Science, Maharashtra. The length of the right tibia and femur bones was measured, calculated and regression formulae was derived to estimate stature for the female population of Maharashtra. To assess the relationship between bone length and stature, Pearson's correlation coefficient was employed and revealed regression coefficient (r) of 0.92 for the femur and 0.77 for the tibia, indicating a significant positive correlation between bone length and stature. Consequently, the findings of this study demonstrate that the length of the femur and tibia bones can serve as reliable predictors for estimating the stature of an individual. In conclusion, anthropometric measurements, particularly those involving long bones such as the femur and tibia, hold immense value in the identification of human remains in the field of forensic anthropology.

Predicted changes to the rate of human decomposition due to climate change during the 21st century

Estimating the post mortem interval is an important aspect of the work of forensic pathologists and forensic anthropologists. Whilst temperature is generally agreed as the most important variable affecting decomposition, some formulae also incorporate relative humidity for a more detailed estimate. Both these variables are impacted by anthropogenic climate change. This study aims to provide a first overview of the likely extent to which anthropogenic climate change will affect future rates of decomposition. The post mortem interval from death until skeletonization (PMIDS) was calculated using the formula by Vass [1], as well as temperature and humidity predictions from two different climate models, to predict changes in the speed of decomposition between the decades 2020–2029 and 2090–2099. The changes are calculated for different climate zones, and a global average, as well as different climate change scenarios, and for decomposition starting in January and July. The estimated PMIDS is significantly (p < 0.05) decreased in most scenarios, with the largest global decrease of 33.5% in the SSP5–8.5 scenario, with decomposition starting in July, and the smallest decrease of 2.6% in the SSP1–2.6 scenario, with decomposition starting in January. The significantly accelerated decomposition in the SSP5- 8.5 scenario will increase the workload of forensic anthropologists, by decreasing the time until skeletonization, after which the expertise of a forensic anthropologist is more likely to be needed. However, climate change is also predicted to decrease the accuracy of the formulae used for PMI estimation, even in regions where levels of precision are currently good. The present authors therefore argue, that the impacts of climate change will warrant increasing attention in the field of forensic anthropology, and that more research into PMI estimation will be needed particularly in warmer and drier regions.

IMPLEMENTATION OF THE ACHIEVEMENTS OF FORENSIC ARCHEOLOGY AND FORENSIC ANTHROPOLOGY IN THE INVESTIGATION OF ILLEGAL SEARCH OPERATIONS AT AN ARCHAEOLOGICAL HERITAGE SITE

The results of expert research in the field of forensic anthropology and forensic archeology help solve many important tasks: identify bone remains, determine the antiquity of a crime and can help historians and archaeologists find answers about the way of life, habits and level of civilization of a particular era. In some cases, even a historical investigation is possible, in which special knowledge of forensic anthropology and archeology can also come in handy. The study of skeletons and corpses, mummified remains of ancient people, cooperation with criminologists and historians helps not only to recognize certain individuals in the presence of materials for comparative research, but also to verify or refute more global versions of certain facts of the life of the entire historical society. The active development of forensic archeology and anthropology abroad provides a worthy example for domestic science and practice to borrow the positive experience of European and American colleagues. We see the use of the results of forensic archeology and forensic anthropology as part of a complex forensic investigation within the framework of the investigation of many offenses, in particular, illegal search operations at an archaeological heritage site, destruction, destruction or damage to cultural heritage sites. General scientific methods of research are empirical (experiment, observation, description) and theoretical (analysis, synthesis, abstraction, generalization, induction, deduction, explanation, classification, etc.), as well as systemic, functional, specifically sociological. The purpose of the article is to develop and analyze the theoretical foundations of conducting a complex forensic-medical and forensic-archaeological/forensic-anthropological examination during the investigation of illegal search operations at an archaeological heritage site, destruction, destruction or damage of cultural heritage sites and other offenses. First of all, when investigating the illegal conduct of search works at an archaeological heritage site, it is necessary to use the achievements of many sciences, to come to a systematic perception of the research object, to look for new interdisciplinary approaches. Secondly, when studying skeletonized remains and corpses, it is necessary to combine knowledge from forensic medicine, history, archeology and anthropology. It is necessary to develop a plan for the investigation of crimes taking into account the appointment of such types of examinations, to calculate certain deadlines and the complexity of investigations of this kind. Thirdly, to develop and test the methodology of conducting comprehensive forensic-medical and forensic-archaeological/forensic-anthropological examinations taking into account the achievements of these fields of knowledge and modern domestic technical and personnel capabilities. Fourth, to study the experience of foreign colleagues, in particular, American research centers and criminal proceedings, to improve the qualifications of certain specialists directly on international practice bases.

A Comparative Analysis of Quadrants-Wise Distribution of Lip Print Pattern in Both Genders

Lip prints from the crime scene and those collected from suspects may be useful in the determination or narrowing down of the investigation. The present study was undertaken to classify lip prints determine the most common pattern in four quadrants of lip in the study population and evaluate differences in lip prints between males and females thereby investigating their potential role in personal identification. The study was conducted on 200 subjects of which 100 were males and 100 were females. Lip prints were obtained using lipstick and adhesive tape. Our study showed a statistically significant relationship between Type I' lip print in the left lower quadrant and Type I' &amp; Type II lip print in the right lower quadrant with the sex of the individual. Additional research on the lip print pattern is needed to expand the field of forensic anthropology and benefits law enforcement organizations. The variation of the lip print pattern in the four quadrants can aid in personal identification and sex differentiation among populations

Evaluating intuitive decision-making in non-metric sex estimation from the cranium: an exploratory study

ABSTRACT In recent years, forensic science has seen a rise in the number of multidisciplinary studies examining the effect of human cognition on the evaluation of forensic evidence. Notably, the House of Lords’ report highlighted the need for further investigation of the consequences of cognitive factors on decision-making processes involved in evidence evaluation and interpretation. Utilizing the concepts of intuitive and methodical decision-making, this pilot study investigated this dichotomy within the field of forensic anthropology, applied to sex estimation from the skull. Participants were asked to estimate the biological sex of six crania in two experiments: once ‘intuitively’ under time-pressure, and once by rationally applying the Acsádi and Nemeskéri method with no time-pressure. The potential influence of experience and its correlation with the participants’ confidence levels was also explored. The results demonstrate that intuitive and methodical evaluations can be consistent with each other, yet consistency decreases as ambiguity increases. Confidence was affected more by time availability, and less by level of experience. The insights from this exploratory study address how decision-making processes are involved in the examination of skeletal remains and offers justification for future exploration into the value of applying wider decision-making theories in the field of forensic anthropology.

The Identified Osteological Collections of South America and Their Ethical Dimensions

Recent years have brought an important increase in the interest in identified human osteological collections in South America. Their number has been systematically growing and their sizes have been expanding, allowing the development of the field of forensic anthropology, among other disciplines, in this region. These collections are used mainly for the validation of international forensic anthropology methods for national and local populations, as well as for the training of professionals and researchers. Despite their growth, important limitation related to the lack of variability in the representativeness of individuals within these collections represents a significant drawback. Likewise, their concentration in only a few countries constitutes a noteworthy concern. This article aims at mapping the existing identified human osteological collections in South America, discussing the advances in the area of forensic anthropology that they have allowed, and reflecting upon their ethical dimensions in the South American context.

Identifying Blunt Force Traumatic Injury on Thermally Altered Remains: A Pilot Study Using Sus scrofa.

Simple SummaryHuman remains are often burned in an effort to conceal the identity of the victim and/or obscure traumatic injuries related to the death event. Thermal exposure can produce artifacts resembling trauma and disguise preexisting trauma. However, there is a paucity of experimental studies with varied results addressing the differentiation of thermally induced artifacts from traumatic signatures. To address this gap in the literature, we conducted a small-scale study using domestic pigs as correlates to test the impact of thermal alteration on blunt force trauma to the cranium. Two tools (e.g., hammer and crowbar) were utilized to manually inflict injuries on the human analogs before controlled burning in an outdoor environment. The results of this experiment demonstrated that the most diagnostic variable to differentiate thermally induced alternations from blunt force fractures was fracture pattern.In forensic scenarios involving homicide, human remains are often exposed to fire as a means of disposal and/or obscuring identity. Burning human remains can result in the concealment of traumatic injury, the creation of artifacts resembling injury, or the destruction of preexisting trauma. Since fire exposure can greatly influence trauma preservation, methods to differentiate trauma signatures from burning artifacts are necessary to conduct forensic analyses. Specifically, in the field of forensic anthropology, criteria to distinguish trauma from fire signatures on bone is inconsistent and sparse. This study aims to supplement current forensic anthropological literature by identifying criteria found to be the most diagnostic of fire damage or blunt force trauma. Using the skulls of 11 adult pigs (Sus scrofa), blunt force trauma was manually produced using a crowbar and flat-faced hammer. Three specimens received no impacts and were utilized as controls. All skulls were relocated to an outdoor, open-air fire where they were burned until a calcined state was achieved across all samples. Results from this experiment found that blunt force trauma signatures remained after burning and were identifiable in all samples where reassociation of fragments was possible. This study concludes that distinct patterns attributed to thermal fractures and blunt force fractures are identifiable, allowing for diagnostic criteria to be narrowed down for future analyses.

The Current Status of Forensic Anthropology in Poland-Assessment of the Discipline

The existing divergences in the development of forensic anthropology (FA) around the world justify an analysis of its situation in each country/region. The present article aims to discuss the current status and development of the field of forensic anthropology in Poland to highlight the existing challenges and contribute to the advancement of the discipline. The research consisted of personal visits to three main centers where forensic anthropology is practiced in Poland and semi-structured interviews with the practitioners. Only seven forensic anthropology practitioners who provide anthropological opinions for law enforcement agencies in Poland have been identified. In 2019, the first post-graduate course in forensic anthropology was created at the Jagiellonian University in Kraków. There are also supplementary workshops for pathologists, prosecutors, and police officers to familiarize them with practical concepts of forensic anthropology. Scientific publications in the field of forensic anthropology appear regularly in national and international professional journals, and cutting-edge research on new methods of analysis and identification from video surveillance systems is being carried out. Their results stand out and gain significant recognition from international scientists. Forensic anthropology in Poland is constantly developing, but there is a need to analyze and harmonize the norms regulating the profession of forensic anthropologists.

The use of different detergents in skeletal preparations

Skeletal preparation has become an integral component within the field of forensic anthropology. The aim of this study was to determine which commercial detergent was most effective and efficient for use in skeletal preparation. The hind limbs of 24 pigs (Sus scrofa) and five detergents with bleaching agents and enzymes (Surf and Ariel), only enzymes (OMO Auto and Sunlight powder) or only bleaching agents (Sunlight dishwashing liquid) were used. Specimens were skinned and immersed into a pre-heated 6 L detergent solution or tap water and macerated at either 45 °C, 50 °C, 55 °C and 60 °C. When maceration was deemed complete any remaining soft tissue was manually removed under running tap water and the remains left to dry. A scoring system was utilized to assess the effectiveness and efficiency of each detergent. OMO Auto specimens only required a single day to complete macerate regardless of the temperature and these specimens constantly scored better than the other detergents used, thus making it the most effective and efficient detergent tested.

A Review on the Detection of Skull by Forensic Analysis

Skull identification is extremely important in today’s society, especially in medico-legal circumstances. As aresult, all technological advancements in this field can contribute to the growing need for precise and robusttools that allow for the establishment and verification of human identity. Identification of skulls when all otherproof and evidence are destroyed or limited requires the usage of facial reconstruction for the forensic team.The facial graphics serve as an emphasis for public attention to specifics of the case to generate additionalinvestigative guidance. The physical appearance of the face is at its best a significant cause for the purposefulidentification and communication to the investigating authorities of knowledge. Human identification is oneof the most remarkable approaches in the field of forensic medicine. The identification mission is performedin the field of forensic anthropology by the examination of the skeletal remains. Anthropologists have beenpaying attention to improve the techniques that allow accurate and clearer identification. Therefore, forensicidentification has become an active field of study and skull detection has emerged as a vital source foridentification. Skull identification is attracted and applied in many forensic areas. This review articleis asummation of the various facial reconstruction approaches and their role in forensic science to identify theindividual.

Age estimation based on computed tomography exploration: a combined method.

Despite an extensive number of existing methods, age estimation of human remains is still an unsolved matter in the field of forensic anthropology, especially when it comes to mature adults. The specific aim of this work was to propose a combined method for age estimation, for forensic purposes, by coupling the Suchey-Brooks method and the measure of the pubic bone density. For this purpose, we used an independent test sample comprising 339 CT scans of living individuals aged 15 to 99years old. Measurement of bone density and staging according to the Suchey-Brooks phases were performed, followed by estimation of ages based on a combined method and an existing virtual reference sample. Results highlighted a significant negative correlation between bone density and age. Good accuracy was obtained for the measurement of pubic bone density for age estimation of men and women, especially concerning mature adults, with an absolute error ranging from 9 to 16years for all individuals. The authors propose a practical combined method consisting of, first, allocating phases according to the scannographic approach of the Suchey-Brooks method. For phases I to IV, the age estimation is given using the Suchey-Brooks method. For phases V to VI, the pubic bone density measurement is used. Further study will be needed to assess the reproducibility of these results on cadavers and dry bones, as the post-mortem process could interfere with the measurement of mineral bone density.

Sexual dimorphism applying the mandibular canine index in a Brazilian sample: a pilot study

The aim of this study was to apply the morphometric quantification of the canine index for sexual dimorphism in a Brazilian sample. The sample consisted of 90 participants (45 males and 45 females) aged between 18 and 35 years. With the aid of a digital caliper, the intraoral mesio-distal measurement of the permanent mandibular right canine (MD43) and the intercanine distance (IC) were taken by three examiners. The measurements were used in a formula established by Rao, Rao, Pai e Kotian (1989) to estimate sex based on morphometric features of the human canines. The applicability of this approach for sexual dimorphism was assessed based on the inherent mandibular canine index (MCI) calculated by the formula. The MCI was higher in males than females. The mean general accuracy rate of the MCI for sexual dimorphism in the total sample was 52.22%. In males, the MCI was able to properly distinguish sex in 82.22% of the sample, while in females the accuracy decreased to 22.22%. These outcomes raise the attention for the careful use of the MCI in practice – especially in the field of Forensic Anthropology. In particular, the accuracy of the method was close to random in a sample that contained both sexes. Thus, MCI should not be used as the only tool for sexual dimorphism.

Changing the Mentorship Paradigm

Mentorship can be defined as the person-to-person transmission of knowledge in a domain where one person has more experience than the other. Formal mentorship programs and awards have recently been implemented in the field of forensic anthropology, but the attitudes of forensic anthropologists toward mentors, protégés, and mentorship experiences have not been systematically explored. This study surveyed a sample of 123 forensic anthropology practitioners and students via 23 multiple-choice and 12 open-answer questions regarding their demographic information, opinions about mentorship, and experiences as both mentors and protégés. Results indicated that forensic anthropologists value both traditional, “top-down” mentorship interactions and “horizontal” peer-to-peer relationships with multiple mentors. Respondents emphasized the career and professionalism advice they received from their mentors, though some wished for additional guidance in social interactions and social issues. Demographic data were consistent with recent research highlighting the problematic homogeneity of the field, particularly in terms of social race. Based on the survey responses, a proposed consensus definition of forensic anthropology mentorship involves professional and personal guidance by a mentor who imparts discipline-specific, experiential knowledge, advice, and support in a way that allows a protégé to develop both professionally and personally. To enable that development in both ourselves and our colleagues—and to increase diversity and retention within our field—we recommend participation in a formal mentorship program specific to the discipline of forensic anthropology.

Estimation of stature by morphometry of percutaneous tibia

Introduction: Stature estimation is an indispensable part of the identification process of human skeletal remains or body parts. Height is also fundamental to assess growth and nutrition and calculating body surface area. Studies on anthropometric measurements of lower limbs among living people have been used as an important tool by forensic anthropologists to reconstruct the living stature of unidentified skeletal remains. Aims and Objectives: The aim of the present study was to estimate the stature from percutaneous tibial length (PCTL) by formulating linear regression equations and also by using multiplication factors, which would be useful in the field of forensic anthropology. Materials and Methods: Sample size measured 350 subjects of Sri Siddhartha Medical College, Tumkur, age group ranging from 17 to 22yrs were considered for the study. Height and PCTL were measured using the standard anthropometric technique. Results: Stature was estimated from PCTL using simple regression analysis. The height of males was significantly higher than that of females. The mean height in females and males was 158.87cm and 170.88 cm respectively; and mean PCTL was 38.54cm and 33.99cm in male and female respectively which was significantly (p Conclusion: Stature can be estimated using the anthropometric measurements of tibia in an intact mutilated leg. Keywords: Height, Tibial length, Anthropometry, Regression equation.