Field-based Team Sports Research Articles

The Use of Global Positioning Systems Devices to Measure Maximum Velocity in Field-Based Team Sport Athletes: A Narrative Review

ABSTRACT The maximum velocity achieved during sprinting is a crucial aspect in various sports. Therefore, practitioners use various devices, such as laser or radar guns, timing gates (TG), and global positioning systems (GPS), to assess sprint performance. Although high-speed cameras are considered the most accurate equipment for assessing maximum velocity (V max), TG are more commonly used because of their practicality and affordability. Recently, GPS technology has gained attention from the sport science community, primarily because of its applied characteristics, enabling “in situ” data exploration. However, there is currently no consensus on the validity, reliability, and sensitivity of GPS in field-based team sports not only for measuring V max but also for tracking potential changes in sprint performance. We thoroughly examined the existing literature on the validity, reliability, and sensitivity of GPS technology for measuring V max, with a specific emphasis on its application in team sports. Furthermore, we offer a comprehensive discussion on the capability of these devices to assess potential variations in V max. By synthesizing current research findings, this narrative review sheds light on the strengths and limitations of GPS devices for assessing V max in field-based team sport athletes.

A systematic literature review of injury epidemiology and surveillance practices in elite adult female field-based team sport.

To describe injury incidence and surveillance practices in elite adult female field-based team sports. Systematic literature review. This review was prospectively registered (PROSPERO CRD42022318642). CINAHL, PubMed, MEDLINE, Scopus, SPORTDiscus, Web of Science, Open Grey and Google Scholar were searched from inception to 30th June inclusive. Peer reviewed original research articles that reported the incidence of injury sustained by females aged ≥18 years in elite field-based team sports were included. The Newcastle Ottawa Scale was used to assess the risk of bias. Twenty prospective cohort studies investigating injury incidence in Australian football, American football, soccer, field hockey, rugby, rugby-7s and cricket were eligible. A higher injury incidence in match play compared to training was reported with the highest match and training incidence (132.7 and 42.1/1000 h of exposure respectively) in Australian football. The majority of the reported injuries were to the lower limb and involved muscle/tendon or joint/ligaments. There was heterogeneity in definitions of injury, severity and exposure, variations in methods of injury data collection and reporting with, not all data being collected/reported optimally, which limited comparison of studies. This review highlights the lack of and need for injury data specific to this cohort. Establishing the incidence of injury with a robust injury surveillance system is the first step in the sequence of injury prevention. It requires consistency in definitions and methodologies, providing accurate and useful injury data, to guide targeted injury prevention strategies.

A Review of the Relationship between Heart Rate Monitoring, Training Load, and Injury in Field-Based Team Sport Athletes

Outdoor, field-based team sports have been a staple of American and international cultures throughout recorded history and are currently played by millions of athletes around the globe. In modern competition, it is critical for athletes and support staff such as coaches, strength and conditioning specialists, and medical personnel to cooperate to optimize competitive readiness and performance. Important variables that can enhance or reduce physiological adaptations related to these areas include the relationship between the prescribed training workload and potential injuries. Therefore, it is important to understand and modify these aspects to fit the unique needs of individual athletes and specific teams. Recent advancements in technology now allow aspects of performance to be monitored in real time via methods that are reliable, cost effective, and noninvasive. The purpose of this literature review is to summarize and elucidate the available information on the potential relationship between heart rate monitoring and training load and how it may be used to prevent, predict, or detect an injury among athletes who participate in field-based sports. Overall, results indicate that while such technology has been used to describe and prescribe training workload, little research has been done to monitor the relationship between these variables and proclivity for or recovery from injury. Future longitudinal studies that encapsulate and address the highly dynamic nature and relationship of these variables are needed to better understand how they interact. Such an understanding may allow personnel such as coaches and staff to better support athletes on and off the field.

Bayesian approaches for critical velocity modelling of data from intermittent efforts

In sports science, critical power and related critical velocity models have been widely investigated, and are being increasingly applied to field-based team sports. A challenge associated with these models is that laboratory experiments that yield accurate measurements of maximal sustainable velocity are expensive. Alternatively, inexpensive field data (from training and matches) are being used to fit such models. However, the intermittent nature of efforts in field-based sports implies that the dependent variable concerning maximum sustainable velocity is reliably calibrated only for short time durations. This paper develops methods where field data based on short time durations is combined with prior knowledge to fit the three-parameter critical velocity model. This is accomplished in a Bayesian framework for which Markov chain methods are required for model fitting and inference.

A GNSS-based method to define athlete manoeuvrability in field-based team sports.

This study presented a method of quantifying the manoeuvrability of two field-based team sport athletes and investigated its relationship with running velocity during competition. Across a season, 10 Hz Global navigation satellite system (GNSS) devices were worn during matches by 62 athletes (Australian Football League [AFL]; n = 36, 17 matches, National Rugby League [NRL]; n = 26, 21 matches). To quantify manoeuvrability, tortuosity was calculated from the X and Y coordinates from match GNSS files (converted from latitude and longitude). Tortuosity was calculated as 100 x natural logarithm of the chord distance (distance travelled between X and Y coordinates), divided by the straight-line distance. The maximal tortuosity was then quantified for each 0.5 m∙s-1 speed increment, ranging from 0 to the highest value for each game file. A quadratic model was fitted for each match file, controlling for the curvilinear relationship between tortuosity and velocity. A comparison of the quadratic coefficients between sports, and within sport between positions was investigated using linear mixed models. Resulting standard deviations (SDs) and mean differences were then assessed to establish standardized effect sizes (ES) and 90% confidence intervals (CI). A curvilinear relationship exists between maximal tortuosity and running speed, reflecting that as speed increases, athletes' ability to deviate from a linear path is compromised (i.e., run in a more linear path). Compared to AFL, NRL had a greater negative quadratic coefficient (a) (ES = 0.70; 0.47 to 0.93) for the 5 second analysis, meaning that as speed increased, NRL athletes' manoeuvrability reduced at a faster rate than when compared to AFL. There were no positional differences within each sport. GNSS derived information can be used to provide a measure of manoeuvrability tortuosity during NRL and AFL matches. The curvilinear relationship between tortuosity and speed demonstrated that as speed increased, manoeuvrability was compromised.

How Does the Dietary Intake of Female Field-Based Team Sport Athletes Compare to Dietary Recommendations for Health and Performance? A Systematic Literature Review.

Field-based team sports present large energetic demands given their intermittent high-intensity nature. Current evidence suggests that the dietary intake of female athletes may be insufficient to meet such demands, resulting in negative consequences for athletic performance and health. The primary aim of this review was to therefore assess the adequacy of dietary intake of female field-based team sport athletes when compared to dietary recommendations. A systematic search of databases, including PubMed, Web of Science, SPORTDiscus, and OpenGrey, was performed from the earliest record available until July 2020, obtaining an initial total of 2588 articles. To be included within the final review, articles were required to provide a quantitative assessment of baseline dietary intake specific to the target population. A total of 20 studies (n = 462) met the full eligibility criteria. A majority reported that the dietary intake of female field-based team sport athletes was insufficient in overall energy (2064 ± 309 kcal·day−1), carbohydrate (4.3 ± 1.2 g·kg·day−1), and iron intake (13.6 ± 6.2 mg·day−1) when compared to recommendations. Future research is required to establish why female team sport athletes consistently demonstrate deficient dietary practices, and to explore the potential negative consequences of this.

The relationship between sprint performance and both lower and upper extremity explosive strength in young soccer players

Background and Study Aim. Sprint performance plays a major role in success of field-based team sports such as soccer. The aim of this study was to evaluate the relationship between sprinting performance and both lower and upper extremity explosive strength in young soccer players.
 Material and Methods. One hundred forty-seven soccer players (mean±SD; age 11.6±1.66 years, height 143.2±11.8 cm, body mass 37.1±10.2 kg and training experience 1.11±1.5 years) voluntarily participated in this study. The sprinting performance of each player was determined using their 5, 10, 20 and 30m single sprint times. The lower and upper extremity explosive strength were evaluated by standing long jump and medicine ball throwing tests respectively. Prior to the study, each of the players was given detailed information about the risks and injuries they could encounter during the study, and parental consent was obtained by their signatures on informed voluntary consent forms since the subjects were under the age of 18. Permission to conduct the study was obtained from Ankara University Medical Faculty’s Surgical and Medical Research Ethics Committee.
 Results. The results indicated a strong relationship between sprinting performance and horizontal jump performance (r=-.671 ̶ -.764; p=0.001) and also a large relationship between sprinting performance and upper extremity strength (r=-.633 ̶ -.703; p=0.001). The sprint performance (n=147) also significantly correlated with body weight (r=-.345 ̶ -.373; p=0.001) and height (r=-.445 ̶ -.505; p=0.001).
 Conclusions. The study results suggest that upper extremity strength is as important as the lower extremity strength for sprinting performance and that trainers should emphasize lower and upper extremity strength in training intended to improve sprinting performance.

Movement Demands of Rugby Sevens in Men and Women: A Systematic Review and Meta-Analysis.

Ball, S, Halaki, M, and Orr, R. Movement demands of rugby sevens in men and women: A systematic review and meta-analysis. J Strength Cond Res 33(12): 3475-3490, 2019-Global positioning systems (GPS) provide comprehensive information of player movement demands in rugby 7's. Although studies have investigated the use of GPS within many field-based team sports, the application of GPS within rugby 7's remains unclear. The aim of this review was to evaluate the movement demands and conduct a meta-analysis on comparable GPS measures to assess player movement in rugby 7's. A systematic search of electronic databases Medline, SPORTDiscus, Cinahl, Web of Science, Scopus, and Embase was performed. The search strategy combined terms covering: global positioning systems AND rugby union. Studies were included if they contained rugby sevens' players monitored by GPS. Meta-analyses were conducted to provide a pooled mean and confidence intervals (CIs) on outcomes for data extracted from at least 3 studies. A total of 24 publications were eligible for review and included 661 (447 male and 214 female) rugby 7's players. Meta-analysis indicated that male players cover greater relative distance (male: 108.5 m·min, 95% CI [104.9-112.1] m·min, female: 100.3 m·min, 95% CI [96.0-104.7] m·min), distance at >12.6 km·h (male: 449.3 m, 95% CI [427.0-471.5] m, female: 339.5 m, 95% CI [291.1-387.9] m) and >18.0 km·h (male: 190.3 m, 95% CI [180.7-199.9] m, female: 129.9 m, 95% CI [99.9-159.8] m), and have a greater maximum velocity compared with female players (male: 29.8 km·h, 95% CI [29.2-30.4] km·h, female: 24.6 km·h, 95% CI [23.3-25.9] km·h), whereas relative distance is higher for the first half (109.5 m·min, 95% CI [99.1-120.0] m·min) compared with the second half (93.8 m·min, 95% CI [87.4-100.1] m·min) of match play across sexes and playing levels. Independent velocity zone classifications should apply for male and female players, whereas velocity thresholds should remain consistent across studies. Rugby 7's training intensity should vary between male and female players.

The effects of sprint training and the Nordic hamstring exercise on eccentric hamstring strength and sprint performance in adolescent athletes.

Hamstring strain injuries (HSI) are among the most common injuries in field-based team sports with a high-speed running component. The implementation of the Nordic hamstring exercise (NHE) is a well-documented method of improving eccentric hamstring strength to mitigate the risk of HSI occurrence. Sprint training is specific to the injury mechanism and is thought to activate the hamstrings through maximal eccentric contractions. The purpose of this study was to compare the effects of sprint training and the NHE on eccentric hamstring strength and sprint performance. Twenty-eight participants (mean±SD age=16.21±1.34 years; height=1.75m±0.10m; body mass=68.5kg±12.1kg) completed an eccentric hamstring strength assessment and 40m sprint to assess acceleration and maximum speed. Participants were randomly allocated to either a NHE training or sprint training group. Two sessions per week for four-weeks of training was performed with baseline testing procedures repeated in the week following the intervention. Perceptions of soreness were recorded following the warm-up in each training session. Both the NHE (effect size=0.39, P<0.05) and sprint training (effect size=0.29, P<0.05) groups displayed significant gains in eccentric hamstring strength. The NHE group reported trivial improvements in sprint performance, whilst the sprint training group experienced a moderate improvement, specifically in maximum speed (ES=0.83 Moderate). Sprint training also produced greater perceptions of soreness than the NHE following a four-week training intervention, specifically before the start of the last session (P<0.05). These findings indicate that sprint training had a beneficial effect for both eccentric hamstring strength and sprint performance, whilst also producing greater soreness than the NHE following the final training session. It was concluded that a four-week block of maximum speed training may have both an injury prevention and performance enhancement benefit.

Small-sided soccer games on sand are more physically demanding but less technically specific compared to games on artificial turf.

The use of sand has been suggested as fitness-enhancing surface in field-based team sports. However, concerns have arisen in regard whether physical responses associated to sand training are sport-specific. We compared physical and technical demands during small-sided soccer games (4 vs. 4 + goalkeeper; SSGs) played on artificial turf and on sand. Movement patterns, rating of perceived exertion (RPE) and technical parameters were obtained from eight adult male soccerers (20.1±1.0 years, 176±4 cm and 70.1±2.0 kg) using Global Positioning Systems, Visual Analogue Scale questionnaires, and notational analysis. High-intensity actions (high intensity running, high intensity activities), low changes of speed, as well as peak and average speed were higher on artificial turf (P<0.05; effect sizes (ES) 0.41 to 0.82). In contrast, time spent by jogging as well as high and maximum changes of speed was higher on sand (P<0.05; ES: 0.59 to 0.82). Moreover, players perceived more demanding to play on sand (P<0.05; ES=0.72). Rating of successful actions was higher during turf SSGs than sand SSGs (P<0.05; ES: 0.44 to 0.73), whereas actions requiring lifting the ball were higher on sand (P<0.05; ES: 0.47 to 0.50). The use of sand can be considered as complemental to on-turf soccer training, when the training goal is to tax lower limb muscle strength or to require high-ball situations. Nonetheless, sand training is not appropriate when the achievement of maximal speed is desired. Further research should clarify the suitability of sand training within soccer conditioning programs.

Athletic groin pain (part 1): a prospective anatomical diagnosis of 382 patients—clinical findings, MRI findings and patient-reported outcome measures at baseline

BackgroundAthletic groin pain remains a common field-based team sports time-loss injury. There are few reports of non-surgically managed cohorts with athletic groin pain.AimTo describe clinical presentation/examination, MRI findings and patient-reported...

Accuracy of GPS devices for measuring high-intensity running in field-based team sports.

We compared the accuracy of 2 GPS systems with different sampling rates for the determination of distances covered at high-speed and metabolic power derived from a combination of running speed and acceleration. 8 participants performed 56 bouts of shuttle intermittent running wearing 2 portable GPS devices (SPI-Pro, GPS-5 Hz and MinimaxX, GPS-10 Hz). The GPS systems were compared with a radar system as a criterion measure. The variables investigated were: total distance (TD), high-speed distance (HSR>4.17 m·s(-1)), very high-speed distance (VHSR>5.56 m·s(-1)), mean power (Pmean), high metabolic power (HMP>20 W·kg(-1)) and very high metabolic power (VHMP>25 W·kg(-1)). GPS-5 Hz had low error for TD (2.8%) and Pmean (4.5%), while the errors for the other variables ranged from moderate to high (7.5-23.2%). GPS-10 Hz demonstrated a low error for TD (1.9%), HSR (4.7%), Pmean (2.4%) and HMP (4.5%), whereas the errors for VHSR (10.5%) and VHMP (6.2%) were moderate. In general, GPS accuracy increased with a higher sampling rate, but decreased with increasing speed of movement. Both systems could be used for calculating TD and Pmean, but they cannot be used interchangeably. Only GPS-10 Hz demonstrated a sufficient level of accuracy for quantifying distance covered at higher speeds or time spent at very high power.

Accuracy and Reliability of GPS Devices for Measurement of Sports-Specific Movement Patterns Related to Cricket, Tennis, and Field-Based Team Sports

The aim of this study was to determine the accuracy and reliability of 5, 10, and 15 Hz global positioning system (GPS) devices. Two male subjects (mean ± SD; age, 25.5 ± 0.7 years; height, 1.75 ± 0.01 m; body mass, 74 ± 5.7 kg) completed 10 repetitions of drills replicating movements typical of tennis, cricket, and field-based (football) sports. All movements were completed wearing two 5 and 10 Hz MinimaxX and 2 GPS-Sports 15 Hz GPS devices in a specially designed harness. Criterion movement data for distance and speed were provided from a 22-camera VICON system sampling at 100 Hz. Accuracy was determined using 1-way analysis of variance with Tukey's post hoc tests. Interunit reliability was determined using intraclass correlation (ICC), and typical error was estimated as coefficient of variation (CV). Overall, for the majority of distance and speed measures, as measured using the 5, 10, and 15 Hz GPS devices, were not significantly different (p > 0.05) to the VICON data. Additionally, no improvements in the accuracy or reliability of GPS devices were observed with an increase in the sampling rate. However, the CV for the 5 and 15 Hz devices for distance and speed measures ranged between 3 and 33%, with increasing variability evident in higher speed zones. The majority of ICC measures possessed a low level of interunit reliability (r = -0.35 to 0.39). Based on these results, practitioners of these devices should be aware that measurements of distance and speed may be consistently underestimated, regardless of the movements performed.

Update in the understanding of altitude-induced limitations to performance in team-sport athletes

The internationalism of field-based team sports (TS) such as football and rugby requires teams to compete in tournaments held at low to moderate altitude (∼1200–2500 m). In TS, acceleration, speed...

Effect of Milk on Team Sport Performance after Exercise-Induced Muscle Damage

Exercise-induced muscle damage (EIMD) leads to increases in intramuscular proteins observed in the blood stream and delayed onset of muscle soreness, but crucial for athletes are the decrements in muscle performance observed. Previous research has demonstrated that carbohydrate-protein supplements limit these decrements; however, they have primarily used isokinetic dynamometry, which has limited applicability to dynamic sport settings. Therefore, the aim of this study was to investigate the effects of a carbohydrate-protein milk supplement consumed after muscle-damaging exercise on performance tests specific to field-based team sports. Two independent groups of seven males consumed either 500 mL of milk or a control immediately after muscle-damaging exercise. Passive and active delayed onset of muscle soreness, creatine kinase, myoglobin, countermovement jump height, reactive strength index, 15-m sprint, and agility time were assessed before and 24, 48, and 72 h after EIMD. The Loughborough Intermittent Shuttle Test was also performed before and 48 h after EIMD. At 48 h, milk had a possible benefit for limiting increases in 10-m sprint time and a likely benefit of attenuating increases in mean 15-m sprint time during the Loughborough Intermittent Shuttle Test. At 72 h, milk had a possible benefit for limiting increases in 15-m sprint time and a likely benefit for the attenuation of increases in agility time. All other effects for measured variables were unclear. The consumption of milk limits decrements in one-off sprinting and agility performance and the ability to perform repeated sprints during the physiological simulation of field-based team sports.

Use of Integrated Technology in Team Sports

Integrated technology (IT), which includes accelerometers, global positioning systems (GPSs), and heart rate monitors, has been used frequently in public health. More recently, IT data have been used in sports settings to assess training and performance demands. However, the impact of IT in sports settings is yet to be evaluated, particularly in field-based team sports. This narrative-qualitative review provides an overview of the emerging impact of IT in sports settings. Twenty electronic databases (e.g., Medline, SPORTdiscus, and ScienceDirect), print publications (e.g., Signal Processing Magazine and Catapult Innovations news releases), and internet resources were searched using different combinations of keywords as follows: accelerometers, heart rate monitors, GPS, sport training, and field-based sports for relevant articles published from 1990 to the present. A total of 114 publications were identified, and 39 that examined a field-based team sport using a form of IT were analyzed. The articles chosen for analysis examined a field-based team sport using a form of IT. The uses of IT can be divided into 4 categories: (a) quantifying movement patterns (n = 22), (b) assessing the differences between demands of training and competition (n = 12), (c) measuring physiological and metabolic responses (n = 16), and (d) determining a valid definition for velocity and a sprint effort (n = 8). Most studies used elite adult male athletes as participants and analyzed the sports of Australian Rules football, field hockey, cricket, and soccer, with sample sizes between 5 and 20 participants. The limitations of IT in a sports setting include scalability issues, cost, and the inability to receive signals within indoor environments. Integrated technology can contribute to significant improvements in the preparation, training, and recovery aspects of field-based team sports. Future research should focus on using IT with female athlete populations and developing resources to use IT indoors to further enhance individual and team performances.

Investigating characteristics of head impacts in paediatric snowsport participants: using telemetry, GPS positioning and acceleration logging

This paper presents insights into the application and combination of two forms of data collection in the context of snowsport participation. The GPS Spi Elite and the HIT System were initially designed for use in field-based team sports. Using a case study approach this paper highlights the value of the two data sources for interpreting recorded head impacts and thus providing a more robust understanding of the characteristics of any impacts that may occur.

Monitoring running workloads in field based team sports: A new energetic approach using GPS technology

Monitoring running workloads in field based team sports: A new energetic approach using GPS technology

The Validity and Reliability of 1-Hz and 5-Hz Global Positioning Systems for Linear, Multidirectional, and Soccer-Specific Activities

The study aimed to analyze the validity and reliability of commercially available nondifferential Global Positioning System (NdGPS) devices for measures of total distance during linear, multidirectional and soccer-specific motion at 1-Hz and 5-Hz sampling frequencies. Linear (32 trials), multidirectional (192 trials) and soccer-specific courses (40 trials) were created to test the validity (mean ± 90% confidence intervals), reliability (mean ± 90% confidence intervals) and bias (mean ± 90% confidence intervals) of the NdGPS devices against measured distance. Standard error of the estimate established validity, reliability was determined using typical error and percentage bias was established. The 1-Hz and 5-Hzdata ranged from 1.3% ± 0.76 to 3.1% ± 1.37 for validity and 2.03% ± 1.31 to 5.31% ± 1.2 for reliability for measures of linear and soccer-specific motion. For multidirectional activity, data ranged from 1.8% ± 0.8 to 6.88% ± 2.99 for validity and from 3.08% ± 1.34 to 7.71% ± 1.65 for reliability. The 1-Hz underestimated some complex courses by up to 11%. 1-Hz and 5-Hz NdGPS could be used to quantify distance in soccer and similar field-based team sports. Both 1-Hz and 5-Hz have a threshold beyond which reliability is compromised. 1-Hz also underestimates distance and is less valid in more complex courses.

Validity and reliability of GPS for measuring distance travelled in field-based team sports

The aim of the present study was to examine the effects of movement intensity and path linearity on global positioning system (GPS) distance validity and reliability. One participant wore eight 1-Hz GPS receivers while walking, jogging, running, and sprinting over linear and non-linear 200-m courses. Five trials were performed at each intensity of movement on each 200-m course. One receiver was excluded from analysis due to errors during data collection. The results from seven GPS receivers showed the mean (±s) and percent bias of the GPS distance values on the 200-m linear course were 205.8 ± 2.4 m (2.8%), 201.8 ± 2.8 m (0.8%), 203.1 ± 2.2 m (1.5%), and 205.2 ± 4 m (2.5%) for the walk, jog, run, and sprint trial respectively. Walk and sprint distances were significantly different from jogging and running distances (P < 0.05). The GPS distance values on the 200-m non-linear course were 198.9 ± 3.5 m (−0.5%), 188.3 ± 2 m (−5.8%), 184.6 ± 2.9 m (−7.7%), and 180.4 ± 5.7 m (−9.8%) for the walk, jog, run, and sprint trial respectively; these were significantly lower than those for the corresponding values on the linear course (P < 0.05). Differences between all non-linear movement intensities were significant (P < 0.05). The overall coefficient of variation within and between receivers was 2.6% and 2.8% respectively. Path linearity and movement intensity appear to affect GPS distance accuracy via inherent positioning errors, update rate, and conditions of use; reliability decreases with movement intensity.