Ficus Natalensis Research Articles

Bark cloth structure and properties: A naturally occurring fabric and ancestral textile craft from Uganda

Natural fabrics from two bark trees of Uganda (“Kilundu”: Antiaris toxicaria and “Mutuba”: Ficus natalensis) are being considered today for the local footwear industry. Here, we thoroughly examined to determine their structural, biochemical and mechanical properties of the two bark cloths, in order to ascertain their potential use as locally-available, low-cost composite reinforcements and eventually for a use in textile industry as well. Fibres in both fabrics are rich in highly crystalline cellulose (76.6 ± 4.9% and 66.3 ± 0.5%) and have very cohesive cell walls with small lumen size and stiff middle lamellae. However, their low indentation modulus is due to a high microfibrillar angle, penalizing their longitudinal stiffness but making them interesting for impact or deformation performance. The two fabrics exhibit layers of preferred fibres orientations, quasi similar to unidirectional or +/-45° preforms, and hence may be used “as produced” as polymer reinforcements in technical composites but also in textile sector, in place of leather. Finally, their water uptake behaviour (21.2%-wt for Mutuba and 13.8%-wt for Kilundu) indicates opportunities for a range of environmentally-sensitive applications.

Isolation and Characterization of Triterpenoid Saponins from Ficus natalensis subsp. leprieurii Leaves

Ficus natalensis subsp. leprieurii also known as the natal fig is a fruit-producing tree belonging to the family Moraceae and widely distributed in African countries and cultivated in Egypt. F. natalensis is common with a myriad of traditional and medicinal importance. Owing to the increased demand for natural products with new structural compositions, the current study aimed to separate and elucidate the structure of triterpenoid saponins from F. natalensis leaves. Our previous biological investigation of F. natalensis leaves revealed its potent antioxidant and anti-inflammatory characteristics, and its ability to alleviate Cd-induced reproductive toxicity. Phytochemical investigation of F. natalensis leaves revealed the separation and structure elucidation of seven (1–7) compounds belonging to triterpenoid saponins using NMR and MS data and identified for the first time in F. natalensis. The isolated compounds were identified as 3-O-β-D-glucopyranosyl (1 → 4) β-D-glucopyranosyl (1 → 4)–α-L-rhamnopyranosyl-quinovic acid-28-O-β-D-glucopyranosyl (1 → 4)–α-L-rhamnopyranosyl (1 → 2)–α-L-arabinopyranoside ester (1), 3-O-β-D-glucopyranosyl (1 → 4) α-L rhamnopyranosyl-quinovic acid-28-O-β-D-glucopyranosyl (1 → 4)–α-L-rhamnopyranosyl (1 → 2) α-L-arabinopyranoside (2), 3-O-β-D-glucopyranosyl–quinovic acid-28-O-β-D-glucopyranosyl ester (3), as 3-O-α-L-rhamnopyranosyl-quinovic acid-28-O-β-D-glucopyranoside ester (4), 3-O-β-D-glucopyranosyl oleanolic acid (5), 3-methoxy-oleanolic acid-28-O-α-L-rhamnopyranoside (6), and 3-O-α-L-rhamnopyranosyl-oleanolic acid-28-O-β-D-glucopyranoside ester (7). Among the identified compounds, compounds 1 and 2 were identified for the first time in nature according to Reaxys and Web of Science database.

Valorization of natural bark cloth fabric from Ficus natalensis for potential antimicrobial applications

Valorization of natural bark cloth fabric from Ficus natalensis for potential antimicrobial applications

ALIEN FLORA OF SUMATRA I: TEN NEW RECORDS

The diversity of plants in Sumatra can be considered poorly known for the native species and the alien or non-native species. Recently, some new records of alien plant species have been added to the flora of Sumatra. Explorations were conducted to look for another undocumented alien plant species in this island in Langsa City, Aceh Province and Ogan Komering Ulu Regency, Sumatra Selatan Province. The results showed ten additional records of alien plants for Sumatra: Acalypha herzogiana (Euphorbiaceae), Coccinia grandis (Cucurbitaceae), Coleus monostachyus (Lamiaceae), Crossandra infundibuliformis (Acanthaceae), Ficus natalensis subsp. leprieurii (Moraceae), Melaleuca linariifolia (Myrtaceae), Ochna thomasiana (Ochnaceae), Ruellia simplex (Acanthaceae), Solanum diphyllum (Solanaceae), and Wrightia antidysenterica (Apocynaceae). Two of them (C. monostachyus and S. diphyllum) are already naturalized while others are in cultivation, or a few of them relicts of it. All species are listed, discussed, and provided with photographs to aid identification.

Extraction of cellulose nanofibrils from Ficus natalensis barkcloth and utilization in preparation of antimicrobial bio-nanocomposite films for possible food packaging applications

Recently, nanosized cellulose materials preparation has been extensively increased from the sources of sustainable materials and utilization in various functional applications as nanofillers. Cellulose nanofibrils (CNF) extraction through green bio-based materials featured as promising interest in the field of science. In this research, cellulose nanofibrils were extracted from a cellulose rich biomass Ficus natalensis barkcloth. Furthermore, extracted cellulose nanofibrils and Zinc oxide nanoparticles (ZnONPs) were mixed and casted to posterior analysis of formed sodium carboxymethyl cellulose (CMC) film at various concentrations of CNF (1 wt%, 5 wt%, 8 wt%, and 12 wt%) and fixed amount of ZnONPs (0.5wt%) based on CMC weight. Results revealed that CNF was smoothly distributed in the polymer matrix to form even and flexible films indicating the cellulose nanofibrils and zinc oxide are highly compatible with the CMC. Similarly, the water solubility percentage (WVP) of CMC film was low at lower content of CNF, and increased with the increase of CNF percentage. Addition of CNF and ZnONPs in nanocomposite films improved the thermal stability values and antibacterial activities of CMC films. Thus on the basis of various tremendous performance, this study showed that F.natalensis barkcloth could be considered as an alternative source of cellulose nanofibrils. Similarly, the prepared nanocomposite films can have potential application in packaging films for the extension of shelf life of fresh and minimally processed fruits and vegetables.

Extraordinarily precise nematode sex ratios: adaptive responses to vanishingly rare mating opportunities.

Sex ratio theory predicts both mean sex ratio and variance under a range of population structures. Here, we compare two genera of phoretic nematodes (Parasitodiplogaster and Ficophagus spp.) associated with 12 fig pollinating wasp species in Panama. The host wasps exhibit classic local mate competition: only inseminated females disperse from natal figs, and their offspring form mating pools that consist of scores of the adult offspring contributed by one or a few foundress mothers. By contrast, in both nematode genera, only sexually undifferentiated juveniles disperse and their mating pools routinely consist of 10 or fewer adults. Across all mating pool sizes, the sex ratios observed in both nematode genera are consistently female-biased (approx. 0.34 males), but markedly less female-biased than is often observed in the host wasps (approx. 0.10 males). In further contrast with their hosts, variances in nematode sex ratios are also consistently precise (significantly less than binomial). The constraints associated with predictably small mating pools within highly subdivided populations appear to select for precise sex ratios that contribute both to the reproductive success of individual nematodes, and to the evolutionary persistence of nematode species. We suggest that some form of environmental sex determination underlies these precise sex ratios.

Ficus natalensis extract alleviates Cadmium chloride-induced testicular disruptions in albino rats

BackgroundCadmium is a potential environmental pollutant with worldwide health problems. Many Ficus species are reported to have an extensive diversity of traditional uses, among them the treatment of reproductive toxicity. ObjectivesThis study set out to evaluate the effect of Ficus natalensis extract on the testicular impairments induced by cadmium chloride (CdCl2) and investigated the potential mechanisms associated with its treatment. MethodsThus, 40 male albino rats were categorized into 4 groups (n = 10); group I (control), group II (cadmium-treated group) orally received 5 mg/kg/day CdCl2 for one month, group III (cadmium + Ficus natalensis extract) orally received 5 mg/kg/day CdCl2 for one month plus 200 mg/kg/day Ficus natalensis extract for another month, and group IV (cadmium + reference drug (mesterolone) orally received 5 mg/kg/day CdCl2 for one month plus 4.16 mg/kg/day mesterolone for another month. ResultsAt the end of experiment, CdCl2 administration markedly induced histological and histo-morphometric changes with a substantial (p < 0.05) decrease in the sperm count, sperm motility, serum TAC, serum testosterone, downregulation in the mRNA expression levels of testicular 17β-HSD and StAR, in addition to a significant increase in serum TNF-α and testicular MDA level compared to the control group. Conversely, the treatment with Ficus natalensis methanolic extract as well as the reference drug significantly ameliorated the above-mentioned adverse effects induced by CdCl2. ConclusionsOur results suggested that Ficus natalensis extract can attenuate the CdCl2-induced testicular impairments via inhibiting the oxidative cell damage and inflammation that contributed to CdCl2 toxicity.

Pyrolytic conversion of a novel biomass Ficus natalensis barkcloth: physiochemical and thermo-kinetic analysis

Pyrolytic conversion of a novel biomass Ficus natalensis barkcloth: physiochemical and thermo-kinetic analysis

Novel Pretreatment Performance Evaluation for Cellulose Nanofibrils Extraction from Ficus natalensis Barkcloth

Recently, nanosized cellulose materials extraction is extensively interesting from the sources of sustainable materials. Cellulose nanofibrils (CNF) extraction through green bio-based materials featured as promising interest in the field of science. In this study, dimethyl sulfoxide (DMSO) was applied to examine its effectiveness in pretreating the Ficus natalensis barkcloth cellulose (FNBC) for CNF production before 2,2,6,6,-tetramethylpiperidine-1-oxyl (TEMPO) oxidation. The pretreatment performance of DMSO was evaluated based on the structural and morphological changes. DMSO pretreated FNBC attained the most dramatic morphological changes as compared to untreated cellulose samples. The results of the scanning electron microscope (SEM) and transmission electron microscope (TEM) shows that there is an extensive structural disruption of FNBC during the pretreatment process, which could be because of outstanding ability to eliminate non-cellulosic materials and amorphous regions from the FNBC, confirmed by the X-ray diffractometry (XRD) showing higher crystallinity values, as well as higher thermal stabilities values of pretreated FNBC samples, were also noted. Overall, this study revealed a tremendously effective and pioneer pretreatment method for fractionating FNBC, to stimulate the successive extraction of cellulose nanofibrils. Furthermore, based on the cellulose and CNF characterizations, this study showed that F. natalensis barkcloth could be considered as an alternative source of cellulose for potential value-added industrial applications such as the food industry, paper making, and biomedicines.

Fire suppression and seed dispersal play critical roles in the establishment of tropical forest tree species in southeastern Africa

This study examined the mechanisms of facilitation and importance of seed dispersal during establishment of forest tree species in an Afrotropical woodland. Seedling survival of Syzygium guineense ssp. afromontanum was monitored for 2.5 years at four different microsites in savannah woodland in Malawi (southeastern Africa) under Ficus natalensis (a potential nurse plant), Brachystegia floribunda (a woodland tree), Uapaca kirkiana (a woodland tree), and at a treeless site. The number of naturally established forest tree seedlings in the woodland was also counted. Additionally, S. guineense ssp. afromontanum seed deposition was monitored at the four microsites. Insect damage (9% of the total cause of mortality) and trampling by ungulates (1%) had limited impact on seedling survival in this area. Fire (43%) was found to be the most important cause of seedling mortality and fire induced mortality was especially high under U. kirkiana (74%) and at treeless site (51%). The rate was comparatively low under F. natalensis (4%) and B. floribunda (23%), where fire is thought to be inhibited due to the lack of light-demanding C4 grasses. Consequently, seedling survival under F. natalensis and B. floribunda was higher compared with the other two microsites. The seedling survival rate was similar under F. natalensis (57%) and B. floribunda (59%). However, only a few S. guineense ssp. afromontanum seedlings naturally established under B. floribunda (25/285) whereas many seedlings established under F. natalensis (146/285). These findings indicate that the facilitative mechanism of fire suppression is not the only factor affecting establishment. The seed deposition investigation revealed that most of the seeds (85%) were deposited under F. natalensis. As such, these findings suggest that in addition to fire suppression, dispersal limitations also play a role in forest-savannah dynamics in this region, especially at the community level.

A traditional Ugandan Ficus natalensis bark cloth exhibits antimicrobial activity against methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus.

Surgical site, soft tissue and wound infections are some of the most prominent causes of healthcare-associated infections (HCAIs). Developing novel antimicrobial textiles and wound dressings may help alleviate the risk of developing HCAIs. We aimed to determine the antimicrobial efficacy of natural Ugandan bark cloth derived exclusively from the Ficus natalensis tree. Antimicrobial contact and disc diffusion assays, coupled with time-kill kinetic assays, demonstrated that bark cloth inhibited the growth of a clinically relevant methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus (MRSA) strain and acted as a bactericidal agent causing a seven-log reduction in bacterial viability. Scanning electron microscopy was used to reveal morphological changes in the bacterial cell ultrastructure when exposed to bark cloth, which supported a proposed mechanism of antimicrobial activity. The observed antimicrobial properties, combined with the physical characteristics elicited by bark cloth, suggest this product is ideally suited for wound and other skin care applications. This is the first report where a whole bark cloth product made by traditional methods has been employed as an antimicrobial fabric against MRSA. Bark cloth is a highly sustainable and renewable product and this study presents a major advance in the search for natural fabrics which could be deployed for healthcare applications.

PREPARATION AND CHARACTERIZATION OF CELLULOSE FILMS FROM FICUS NATALENSIS BARK CLOTH FIBERS

In this study, cellulose films were prepared from Ficus natalensis bark cloth fibers via phase inversion technique using NaOH/urea/water as the solvent. Films were formed at a concentration of 7 wt. % and 8 wt. % of microcrystalline cellulose (MCC) as isolated from Ficus natalensis bark cloth fibers. Their morphology, physiochemical, and mechanical properties were examined with scanning electron microscopy (SEM), Fourier transform IR spectroscopy (FTIR), x-ray diffraction (XRD), thermal gravimetric analysis (TGA) and microcontrolled electronic universal testing machine. The resultant regenerated cellulose (RC) films exhibited rough surfaces morphologically, good tensile strength (19.85 ± 0.13 MPa), exhibited a plastic behavior with considerable strains. However, they are thermally stable at higher temperatures up to 280 °C. Cellulose films from this study could potentially act as biodegradable packaging materials to upgrade the scope of application of Ficus natalensis bark

Chemical constituents from Ficus natalensis hochst (Moraceae) and their chemophenetic significance

Phytochemical investigation of the stem bark of Ficus natalensis afforded eleven compounds including one ceramide (1), two anthraquinones (2, 3), four triterpenes (4–7), two polyols (8, 9) and two steroids (10, 11). The structures of the compounds were determined by spectroscopic analyses including IR, UV, MS, 1D- and 2D- NMR (1H, 13C, 1H–1H COSY, HMQC, HMBC and NOESY), as well as by comparison with literature data. The antibacterial activity and the cytotoxicity of the extract, fractions and some isolated compounds (3, 5, 8 and 9) were evaluated. Some fractions and sub-fractions from various column chromatography displayed moderate antibacterial activity with diameter zone of inhibition (DZI) ranging from 7 to 10 mm. None of the compounds tested had activity. In the present study, all the compounds are isolated for the first time from the species F. natalensis. Compounds 2, 4–7, 10 and 11 were previously reported from the genus Ficus. The chemophenetic significance of the isolated compounds is discussed.

English

Tree species play a significant role in sustaining the productivity of grazing lands. However, information on appropriate species to use in restoring degraded grazing areas is limited. This study used 120 trees to assess the effect of 8 tree species on pasture diversity, abundance and biomass. This was done in a total of 960 quadrats of 1 m2 established under tree canopies and 5 m away from the edge of tree canopies. In each quadrat, the different pasture species and their ground cover were recorded. The pastures were harvested, weighed and their biomass recorded. Results of analysis by Shannon&ndash;Wiener&rsquo;s index indicated that pasture diversity was almost the same under and outside tree canopies (H = 1.8 and H = 1.78 respectively), but pasture abundance was significantly higher under tree canopies (p &lt; 0.05). Ficus natalensis and Albizia coriaria had the highest pasture abundance under their canopies. Pasture biomass never varied significantly under and outside tree canopies but between tree species, F. natalensis had a significantly higher positive influence on pasture biomass than other species. It was discovered that F. natalensis and A. coriaria have a higher potential for restoring degraded grazing areas in South-western Uganda. Key words: Brachiaria spp., Ficus natalensis, livestock, Shannon-Wiener, tree canopy. &nbsp

Medicinal Plants Used in Traditional Management of Cancer in Uganda: A Review of Ethnobotanical Surveys, Phytochemistry, and Anticancer Studies.

The burden of neoplastic diseases is a significant global health challenge accounting for thousands of deaths. In Uganda, about 32,617 cancer cases were reported in 2018, accompanied by 21,829 deaths. In a view to identify some potential anticancer plant candidates for possible drug development, the current study was designed to compile the inventory of plants with reported anticancer activity used in rural Uganda and the evidences supporting their use in cancer therapy. An electronic survey in multidisciplinary databases revealed that 29 plant species belonging to 28 genera distributed among 24 families have been reported to be used in the management of cancer in Uganda. Anticancer plants were majorly from the families Bignoniaceae (7%), Caricaceae (7%), Fabaceae (7%), Moraceae (7%), and Rutaceae (7%). Most species occur in the wild (52%), though some are cultivated (48%). The growth habit of the plants is as trees (55%) or herbs (45%). Anticancer extracts are usually prepared from leaves (29%), bark (24%), roots (21%), and fruits (13%) through decoctions (53%), as food spices (23%) or pounded to produce ointments that are applied topically (10%). Prunus africana (Hook.f.) Kalkman, Opuntia species, Albizia coriaria (Welw. ex Oliver), Daucus carota L., Cyperus alatus (Nees) F. Muell., Markhamia lutea (Benth.) K. Schum., and Oxalis corniculata L. were the most frequently encountered species. As per global reports, Allium sativum L., Annona muricata L., Carica papaya L., Moringa oleifera Lam., Opuntia species, Prunus africana (Hook.f.) Kalkman, and Catharanthus roseus (L.) G. Don. are the most studied species, with the latter having vincristine and vinblastine anticancer drugs developed from it. Prostate, cervical, breast, and skin cancers are the top traditionally treated malignancies. There is a need to isolate and evaluate the anticancer potential of the bioactive compounds in the unstudied claimed plants, such as Cyperus alatus (Nees) F. Muell., Ficus dawei Hutch., Ficus natalensis Hochst., and Lovoa trichilioides Harms, and elucidate their mechanism of anticancer activity.

Adsorption of Lead (II) and Copper (II) Ions from Mono Synthetic Aqueous Solutions Using Bio-Char from &amp;lt;i&amp;gt;Ficus natalensis&amp;lt;/i&amp;gt; Fruits

Many science-based institutions in most developing countries use heavy metal containing salts in practical teaching sessions. The commonly used chemicals are the salts of lead (II) and copper (II) and the wastes generated end up into the environment when untreated. Thus, a study was done to remove lead (II) and copper (II) ions from mono synthetic aqueous solution using bio-char from Ficus natalensis fruits (FNF). This was done at varied pH, contact time, temperature, bio-char dosage level, salinity and metal ion concentration using the batch approach. The residual metal concentrations were determined using the atomic absorption spectrophotometer. The optimum pH for the adsorption of copper (II) and lead (II) ions was found to be 4.0 and 5.0 respectively. The maximum percentage adsorption of copper (II) and lead (II) by the FNF bio-char was established at 60 minutes contact time, 47.5&degC and 0.4 g adsorbent dose. Increase in the metal ion concentration and the presence of interfering ions in the aqueous solution lead to decrease in the percentage adsorption. The highest adsorption capacity was found to be 161.29 mg/g and 1250 mg/g for copper (II) and lead (II) ions respectively. The thermodynamic parameters indicated the feasibility of the adsorption of copper (II) and lead (II) on the bio-char of FNF. Thus, bio-char from FNF may be used as an adsorbent in waste management where copper (II) and lead (II) ions are present at a concentration range of between 5 and 100 mg/l.

Fighting injuries, fig exit, and dimorphism in two species of sycoryctine fig wasp (Chalcidoidea, Pteromalidae)

Similar to many vertebrate and invertebrate species, many fig wasp species are fighting other members of their species for mates. Fighting between the males of many non-pollinating fig wasp species involves injuries and fatalities. Studies have shown that large males fight for mates, whereas conspecific small males tend to adopt nonfighting, sneaky behaviors. To analyze male morphs in two non-pollinating fig wasps (Philotrypesis taida Wong &amp;amp; Shiao, 2018 and Sycorycteridea taipeiensis Wong &amp;amp; Shiao, 2018) associated with the fig tree Ficus benguetensis, the head and mandible allometry and injuries were examined as well as the morphologies of their heads and mandibles. Male fig wasps of these two nonpollinating species can be divided into two morphological groups according to their head and mandible shapes. Approximately 88% of the Philotrypesis and 62% of the Sycorycteridea males were injured and no males belonging to largest morphs were decapitated. Moreover, nearly 31% of the Philotrypesis and 45% of the Sycorycteridea males left their natal figs. No difference in injury level or male exit rate between the male morphs was observed. This study reveals slight morphological and behavioral differences that may hint towards different mating strategies among morphs.

Structure and properties of high quality natural cellulose nano fibrils from a novel material Ficus natalensis barkcloth

We report for the first time the extraction of cellulose nano fibrils from Ficus natalensis barkcloth fibers by means of chemical treatments and catalytic oxidation of cellulose fibers by using 2,2,6,6-tetramethylpiperidine-1-oxyl radical (TEMPO). After every stage of treatments, the structural properties of barkcloth fibers powder (BC-PW), cellulose fibers (BC-NB) and cellulose nano fibrils (BC-CNF) were carefully characterized by means of scanning electron microscopy (SEM) and transmission electron microscopy (TEM) for morphological analysis, Fourier-transform infrared spectroscopy (FTIR) and X-ray diffraction techniques for chemical analysis, and thermal properties were done by thermo-gravimetric analysis. FTIR results revealed the progressive removal of non-cellulosic contents and X-ray diffraction (XRD) analysis showed that the crystallinity increased with the successive alkali and bleaching treatments. Finally, by evaluating the TEM images, the average diameter of the nano-cellulose fibrils from Ficus natalensis barkcloth was also confirmed as 28 ± 0.6 nm and the length in hundred nano meters was recorded. The resultant cellulose nano fibrils maintaining the cellulose I structure had dimensional properties in nano-scale, higher crystallinity (68.5), and better thermal stability (305.62°C). The barkcloth cellulose nano fibrils can be used in nano technology like food packing material, nano composites and medical textiles.

Environmentally friendly and sustainable bark cloth for garment applications: Evaluation of fabric properties and apparel development

Ugandan bark cloth has been recognised by UNESCO as a masterpiece of the ‘Intangible Cultural Heritage of Humanity’, to protect the knowledge, traditions and livelihoods associated with its production. Bark cloth is a non-woven, fibrous textile that has been produced from the wild fig or mutuba tree (Ficus natalensis) by the Baganda people of southern Uganda for hundreds of years. A typical bark cloth has a rich, terracotta colour and is worn by kings and chiefs during coronations, religious ceremonies and cultural gatherings, as well as for funeral shrouds. Due to the growing awareness and the need to reduce the environmental impact of textiles, there is a pressing rationale to use natural materials or fibres in fashion clothing in recent years as designers and practitioners embrace environmentally sustainable raw materials and promote traditional craftsmanship.Various properties and significance of bark cloth from cultural, ethical, technical and aesthetic perspectives to determine its feasibility as a sustainable fashion textile was explored. The potential of bark cloth specifically in relation to the characteristics of luxury fashion (craftsmanship, quality, rarity, heritage and storytelling), through using techniques that include embroidery, appliqué, gilding, laser cutting, natural dyeing and fusing is highlighted.The bark cloth was investigated for its practical suitability for apparel end use. Various fabric tests were conducted to determine its performance including fabric drape, stiffness, surface morphology, and tearing strength. The bark cloth was subjected to CO2 laser etching and sublimation printing to incorporate surface patterns and attenuated total reflectance Fourier transform infrared spectroscopy [ATR-FTIR] was used to monitor the loss of fibres. Based on the trials, an optimum set of parameters were identified to use laser and sublimation printing. Raw bark cloth was stiff when heat-pressed, so it was fused with various fusible interfacing fabrics [A,B, and C] to enhance drape, texture, handle and strength. Results indicated that bark cloth when fused with woven interfacing [C] improved its strength [warp direction aligned with fabric grain] by approximately six times [330 N] the strength of bark cloth [57 N]. Fabric drape increased marginally [1.0–3.0%] when fusing with the interfacing, however it offered better handle when making the garment. A basic test garment (size 12 female full-sleeve top) was developed with the fused bark cloth that offered good drape and its shape and fit were evaluated on a mannequin. Outcomes indicated that bark cloth could be satisfactorily developed into outer garments with specific treatment.

Effect of soaking of Ficus natalensis Hochst. leaves in different solutions on intake, digestibility and nitrogen balance in goats

This study evaluated the effectiveness of soaking Ficus natalensis leaves in bamboo charcoal or bamboo ash solutions to improve intake, digestibility and nitrogen utilization by goats. The leaves were prepared in four different ways (four treatments) prior to being fed to eight goats as the sole diet in a double 4 × 4 Latin square design. The four treatments were: Charcoal (F. natalensis leaves soaked in bamboo charcoal solution for 24 h); Ash (F. natalensis leaves soaked in bamboo ash solution for 24 h); Water (F. natalensis leaves soaked in water for 24 h); and Control (non-soaked fresh F. natalensis leaves). Daily feed intake, digestibility of dry matter (DM), organic matter (OM) and crude protein (CP) as well as nitrogen utilization by the goats were determined. Soaking (Charcoal, Ash and Water treatments) did not improve (P > 0.05) intake of F. natalensis leaves; however soaking in the bamboo ash solution significantly reduced (P 0.05) on OM and CP digestibility Similarly, soaking either in water or bamboo charcoal solution significantly improved (P < 0.05) nitrogen (N) utilization; with lower (P < 0.05) faecal and urinary N excretions as well as higher (P < 0.05) N retention values than the control treatment (non-soaked leaves). There is a need for further studies to determine effect of soaking in water or bamboo charcoal solution on goat performance (average daily gain) and slaughter, carcass and organoleptic characteristics of goat meat.