Feral Goats Research Articles

Economic estimates of invasive wild ungulate damage to livestock producers in Hawai'i.

Invasive ungulates (hoofed mammals), including deer, feral pigs, feral goats, and feral sheep, are known to cause damage to agriculture, property, natural resources, and many other commodities. Most of the information regarding the economic impacts of wild ungulates is from North America, where some of these species are native. To evaluate invasive ungulate damage to livestock producers in the Hawaiian Islands, which have no native ungulates, a survey was distributed to livestock producers across the state. Survey results described how total annual costs are distributed among damage, control, and repairs for survey respondents, who represented a significant percentage of total ranchland acreage across the islands. The estimates, excluding fixed fence installation, revealed an annual cost to livestock producers who responded to the survey of US$1.42 million, which ranged from $3.6 million to $7.5 million when extrapolated to the entire state. The large cost contributors included damage to property, pastureland repair, control costs (excluding fencing), supplemental feed, and predation of calves by wild pigs. Additionally, producers reported spending more than $2 million in upfront fence installation costs. Most of these costs were reported by respondents on the islands of Hawai'i and Moloka'i. Study results revealed substantial damage to state livestock producers due to wild ungulates and are useful in determining an invasive ungulate management strategy that can appropriately aid the most impacted sectors of Hawai'i. © 2024 The Author(s). Pest Management Science published by John Wiley & Sons Ltd on behalf of Society of Chemical Industry.

1117. Crepidiastrum grandicollum (Koidz.) Nakai: Compositae: Plants in peril 41

SummaryCrepidiastrum grandicollum (Koidz.) Nakai (Compositae: Lactuceae: Crepidinae) is described and illustrated. The current synonymy is provided, together with type citations for each of the names and statements of the type material. A selection of verified illustrations of the species in the literature is provided. Statements of the species' distribution, habitat and ecological preferences (with observations on the phytosociological classification), phenology, conservation status, and the etymology of both generic and specific epithets are given along with vernacular names, some of which are apparently literal translations of the Latin binomial. Cultivation, propagation, and availability notes are provided, although the species is Critically Endangered and currently only cultivated Koishikawa Botanical Garden, University of Tokyo, Japan, as part of the Ministry of the Environment's Rare Wild Fauna and Flora Species Protection and Breeding Project. Discussions include pollination syndromes in Crepidiastrum in the Bonin Islands, the intricacies of the involvement of the Honey Bee in their pollination (compared with conservation measures) and the displacement of native insect pollinators, mention of seed/achene dispersal and evolution within the genus, conservation proposals, including the use of exclosures to prevent destruction by feral goats (Capra hircus), and electric fences, adhesive traps and Teflon™ sheets to help control the lizard known as the Green Anole (Anolis carolinensis); typhoon damage and the potential for issues with ants ‐ Pheidole (Westwood) spp. (including the African Big‐headed Ant, P. megacephala) are also mentioned. Some consideration for the rôle of Arbuscular Mycorrhizal (AM) associations with the endemics in conservation programmes should not be overlooked. Attention is drawn to observations on some bizarre web sites with somewhat bogus information on the species, and why they should be disregarded.

Management of feral goats Capra hircus Linnaeus, 1758 in insular southern Greece: implications for prehistory

Management of feral goats Capra hircus Linnaeus, 1758 in insular southern Greece: implications for prehistory

Assessing Water-Saving Technologies and the Impact of Giant Tortoise Herbivory on the Restoration of Opuntia megasperma var. orientalis on Española Island—Galapagos

The prickly pear (Opuntia megasperma var. orientalis), a pivotal species for the ecological balance of Española Island in Galapagos, has witnessed a severe decline in its population due to the enduring presence of introduced feral goats over several decades. Additionally, the inherent slow recovery of this species, requiring several years of development, has contributed to its population decline. Several attempts were carried out to restore this species, but they were not successful due to the island’s extreme arid conditions. Subsequently, innovative water-saving technologies were introduced to ensure the survival and growth of the Opuntia species. Two water-saving technologies, Groasis Waterboxx® and Hydrogel, were applied in two distinct treatments, the first involving Waterboxx solely, and the second combining Waterboxx with Hydrogel, alongside a control group. Planting involved two types of cacti: cladodes and seedlings. To safeguard against potential damage from giant tortoises and local birds, protective mesh fencing was installed around the plants. Each monitoring session recorded plant survival and growth, evaluating the impact of water-saving technologies on cactus survival, maximum plant height reached, age at the time of plant death, and growth achieved since planting. Additionally, the study assessed the influence of climate on plant survival and growth. Unfortunately, the employment of protective mesh fences and Waterboxx containers resulted in the unintended loss of specific bird species. Consequently, a decision was taken to remove these protective measures, resulting in a substantial rise in herbivorous activity, and the subsequent mortality of nearly all plants. Our findings underscore the efficacy of water-saving technologies in Opuntia restoration. However, successful application necessitates a better understanding of these technologies within the unique conditions of the island. Future endeavors should focus on refining these techniques to minimize avian mortality while fostering biodiversity and restoring ecological equilibrium.

Characterization of heterozygosity-rich regions in Italian and worldwide goat breeds

Heterozygosity-rich regions (HRR) are genomic regions of high heterozygosity, which may harbor loci related to key functional traits such as immune response, survival rate, fertility, and other fitness traits. This study considered 30 Italian and 19 worldwide goat breeds genotyped with the Illumina GoatSNP50k BeadChip. The aim of the work was to study inter-breed relationships and HRR patterns using Sliding Window (SW) and Consecutive Runs (CR) detection methods. Genetic relationships highlighted a clear separation between non-European and European breeds, as well as the north–south geographic cline within the latter. The Pearson correlation coefficients between the descriptive HRR parameters obtained with the SW and CR methods were higher than 0.9. A total of 166 HRR islands were detected. CHI1, CHI11, CHI12 and CHI18 were the chromosomes harboring the highest number of HRR islands. The genes annotated in the islands were linked to various factors such as productive, reproductive, immune, and environmental adaptation mechanisms. Notably, the Montecristo feral goat showed the highest number of HRR islands despite the high level of inbreeding, underlining potential balancing selection events characterizing its evolutionary history. Identifying a species-specific HRR pattern could provide a clearer view of the mechanisms regulating the genome modelling following anthropogenic selection combined with environmental interaction.

Sex-driven neighborhood effects on herbivory in the dioecious Mediterranean palm Chamaerops humilis L.

Although it is well recognized that the strength of plant-herbivore interactions can vary with the plant sex, the distance, and the density of conspecific neighbors, no study has yet assessed their combined influence. Here, we filled this knowledge gap by focusing on the dioecious palm Chamaerops humilis L., and its two main herbivores, the invasive moth Paysandisia archon Burmeister and the feral goat Capra hircus L. We evaluated levels and spatial patterns of herbivory, as well as those of plant size and number of inflorescences in two palm populations in Mallorca (Balearic Islands, Spain). Our spatial point pattern analyses revealed that palms not affected by moth herbivory or goat florivory were spatially aggregated, goats fed more strongly upon inflorescences in palms with more neighbors, but they consumed more leaves in isolated palms. Interestingly, we could reveal for the first time that plant sex is a key plant trait modulating neighborhood effects. For instance, whereas aggregated female palms experienced lower intensity of goat florivory than isolated ones, male palms showed the opposite pattern. Palm size and number of inflorescences also showed sex-related differences, suggesting that sexual dimorphism is a key driver of the observed neighborhood effects on herbivory. Our study highlights the importance of considering relevant plant traits such as sex when investigating plant neighborhood effects, calling for further research to fully understand the dynamics governing plant-herbivore interactions in dioecious systems.

Predicting ecosystem changes by a new model of ecosystem evolution

In recent years, computer simulation has been increasingly used to predict changes in actual ecosystems. In these studies, snapshots of ecosystems at certain points in time were instantly constructed without considering their evolutionary histories. However, it may not be possible to correctly predict future events unless their evolutionary processes are considered. In this study, we developed a new ecosystem model for reproducing the evolutionary process on an oceanic island, targeting Nakoudojima Island of the Ogasawara Islands. This model successfully reproduced the primitive ecosystem (the entire island covered with forest) prior to the invasion of alien species. Also, by adding multiple alien species to this ecosystem, we were able to reproduce temporal changes in the ecosystem of Nakoudojima Island after invasion of alien species. Then, we performed simulations in which feral goats were eradicated, as had actually been done on the island; these suggested that after the eradication of feral goats, forests were unlikely to be restored. In the ecosystems in which forests were not restored, arboreous plants with a high growth rate colonized during the early stage of evolution. As arboreous plants with a high growth rate consume a large amount of nutrient in soil, creating an oligotrophic state. As a result, plants cannot grow, and animal species that rely on plants cannot maintain their biomass. Consequently, many animals and plants become extinct as they cannot endure disturbances by alien species, and the ecosystem loses its resilience. Therefore, even if feral goats are eradicated, forests are not restored. Thus, the founder effect from the distant past influences future ecosystem changes. Our findings show that it is useful to consider the evolutionary process of an ecosystem in predicting its future events.

A homozygosity-based investigation of the South African feral Tankwa goat population

The Tankwa goat is a known feral goat landrace that originated in the Karoo region of South Africa. These goats are able to thrive with no managerial intervention, and prosper in the harsh, arid conditions that characterizes their natural habitat. This study aimed to use a ROH-approach to describe the Tankwa goat in terms of autozygosity and to identify possible signatures of selection. Genome-wide SNP data for 360 Tankwa goats were used to calculate diversity statistics, detect runs of homozygosity and estimate individual genetic inbreeding coefficients. SNP genotypes of 48 Angora and 40 Dairy individuals were compared using the FST approach to detect signatures of selection. Relatively low minor allele frequency (0.249), and high linkage disequilibrium (r2 = 0.469) levels were estimated for the Tankwa population, with moderate levels of heterozygosity (HE = 0.368; HO = 0.367). The results for both the detected runs of homozygosity and inbreeding estimate, indicates an ancient origin of inbreeding for the Tankwa goats with low levels of autozygosity. Signatures of selection were identified in 50 SNPs, of which 0.1% was considered significant. A total of 49 genes were identified that may possibly be significant in various biological pathways. Three of these genes, namely GJB2, GJB6 and GJA3 on CHI12, were previously associated with adaptation to heat and drought resistance in other breeds. Genes GJB2 and GJB6 are known to be linked to the sensory perception of sound, while GJA3 and OPA3 are linked to visual perception. These genes could play an important role in the survival of an individual existing in a harsh environment in terms of foraging and evading predators. Understanding the genetic background of these genes, as well as the metabolic pathways that they control, could assist in further investigating production efficiency of domesticated species in a climate change environment.

From seed dispersal service to reproductive collapse: density‐dependent outcome of a palm–mammal interaction

Interspecific ecological interactions are inherently context‐dependent. They may vary in both magnitude and sign depending on the biotic and abiotic conditions, depicting a mutualism–antagonism continuum. However, how population abundances and the activity of interacting species modulate these interactions remains underexplored. Here, we chose the interaction between the Mediterranean palm Chamaerops humilis and the feral goat Capra hircus in Mallorca (Balearic Islands, Spain). We selected three study plots with low, intermediate and high intensities of goat activity where we characterized palm distribution, seed rain, seed predation and early palm recruitment during two consecutive years. Since goats can cause both costs (e.g. florivory) and benefits (e.g. seed dispersal) to C. humilis performance, we investigated the following three questions: 1) does the spatial distribution of adult palms vary depending on the intensity of goat activity? 2) Does the intensity of goat activity influence seed rain and its potential spatial association with adult palms? 3) To what extent does the intensity of goat activity determine post‐dispersal events such as seed predation and seedling emergence? We found that adult palms showed a more clumped and complex distribution (double‐cluster process) in plots with low and intermediate goat activity compared to that with high goat activity (simple‐cluster process). In the low goat activity plot, dispersed seeds were spatially aggregated around adult palms, showing twice as much insect‐seed predation and nearly three times lower seed germination success than those in the intermediate goat activity plot. Palm seed dispersal and recruitment were almost nil in the high goat activity plot due to heavy consumption of palm inflorescences and developing fruits by goats. Our findings demonstrate how the net outcome of plant–animal interactions can change from mutualism to antagonism, from reproductive service to reproductive collapse, depending on the abundance and the activity of the interacting species.

Soil phosphorous is the primary factor determining species-specific plant growth depending on soil acidity in island ecosystems with severe erosion

Disturbances caused by invasive ungulates alter soil environments markedly and can prevent ecosystem recovery even after eradication of the ungulates. On oceanic islands, overgrazing and trampling by feral goats has caused vegetation degradation and soil erosion, which can alter soil chemistry. To understand the effects of the changes on plant performance, we conducted a laboratory experiment to assess herbaceous species growth under various soil conditions with phosphorous, nutrients, and acidity. Subsoil was collected from Nakodo-jima in the northwest Pacific. Six herbaceous species dominating the island were grown in soils with three levels of added CaCO3 and P2O5 and two levels of added KNO3. After 4 weeks of growth, the total dry plant weight was significantly lower with no added P2O5, regardless of the addition of KNO3. Three species weighed more under P2O5 and KNO3 addition in high-pH soil, whereas the remaining three weighed less. Our results indicated that herbaceous species growth is limited primarily by phosphorous availability; the limitation is dependent on soil pH, and the trend of dependency differs among species. This implies that ecosystems with extreme disturbances cannot recover without improving the soil chemistry.

Refugia or reservoir? Feral goats and their role in the maintenance and circulation of benzimidazole-resistant gastrointestinal nematodes on shared pastures.

Gastrointestinal nematodes threaten the productivity of grazing livestock and anthelmintic resistance has emerged globally. It is broadly understood that wild ruminants living in sympatry with livestock act as a positive source of refugia for anthelmintic-susceptible nematodes. However, they might also act as reservoirs of anthelmintic-resistant nematodes, contributing to the spread of anthelmintic resistance at a regional scale. Here, we sampled managed sheep and cattle together with feral goats within the same property in New South Wales, Australia. Internal transcribed spacer 2 (ITS-2) nemabiome metabarcoding identified 12 gastrointestinal nematodes (Cooperia oncophora, Cooperia punctata, Haemonchus contortus, Haemonchus placei, Nematodirus spathiger, Ostertagia ostertagi, Teladorsagia circumcincta, Oesophagostomum radiatum, Oesophagostomum venulosum, Trichostrongylus axei, Trichostrongylus colubriformis and Trichostrongylus rugatus). Isotype-1 β-tubulin metabarcoding targeting benzimidazole resistance polymorphisms identified 6 of these nematode species (C. oncophora, C. punctata, H. contortus, H. placei, O. ostertagi and T. circumcincta), with the remaining 3 genera unable to be identified to the species level (Nematodirus, Oesophagostomum, Trichostrongylus). Both ITS-2 and β-tubulin metabarcoding showed the presence of a cryptic species of T. circumcincta, known from domestic goats in France. Of the gastrointestinal nematodes detected via β-tubulin metabarcoding, H. contortus, T. circumcincta, Nematodirus and Trichostrongylus exhibited the presence of at least one resistance genotype. We found that generalist gastrointestinal nematodes in untreated feral goats had a similarly high frequency of the benzimidazole-resistant F200Y polymorphism as those nematodes in sheep and cattle. This suggests cross-transmission and maintenance of the resistant genotype within the wild ruminant population, affirming that wild ruminants should be considered potential reservoirs of anthelmintic resistance.

The eradication of feral goats from Auckland Island

Feral goats (Capra aegagrus hircus) were eradicated from Auckland Island, a National Nature Reserve and World Heritage site, between 1989 and 1991. Goats had established on the main Auckland Island following several releases in the 19th century. The population, amongst the most southerly ever recorded, was restricted to the northernmost areas of the island, with environmental conditions appearing unfavourable for southward spread, and the population stable at c. 100 individuals during scientific studies in the 1970s and 1980s.

The eradication of feral goats from Auckland Island

The eradication of feral goats from Auckland Island

Land use and dingo baiting are correlated withthe density of kangaroos in rangeland systems.

Rangelands worldwide have been subject to broadscale modification, such as widespread predator control, introduction of permanent livestock water and altered vegetation to improve grazing. In Australia, these landscape changes have resulted in kangaroos (i.e. large macropods) populations increasing over the past 200 years. Kangaroos are a key contributor to total grazing pressure and in conjunction with livestock and feral herbivores have been linked to land degradation. We used 22 years of aerial survey data to investigate whether the density of 3 macropod species in the southern rangelands of Western Australia was associated with: (i) land use, including type of livestock, total livestock, density of feral goats, type of land tenure, and kangaroo commercial harvest effort; (ii) predator management, including permitted dingo control effort, estimated dingo abundance, and presence of the State Barrier Fence (a dingo exclusion fence); and (iii) environmental variables: ruggedness, rainfall, fractional cover, and total standing dry matter. Red kangaroos (Osphranter rufus) were most abundant in flat, open vegetation, on pastoral land, where area permitted for dingo control was high, and numbers were positively associated with antecedent rainfall with a 12-month delay. Western grey kangaroos (Macropus fuliginosus) were most abundant on flat, agricultural land, but less abundant in areas with high permitted dingo control. Euros (Osphranter robustus) were most abundant in rugged pastoral land with open vegetation, where permitted dingo control was high. While environmental variables are key drivers of landscape productivity and kangaroo populations, anthropogenic factors such as land use and permitted dingo control are strongly associated with kangaroo abundance.

Nonadditive effects of two contrasting introduced herbivores on the reproduction of a pollination-specialized palm.

Plant-animal interactions fall within a mutualism-antagonism continuum, exerting a wide range of effects on plant reproductive success. These effects become even more complex and diverse when several disparate animal species interact with the same plant species. Despite the increasing number of studies about the influence of herbivory on plant performance, the outcomes mediated by pollination and the combined impact of multiple herbivores on pollination-specialized plants are underexplored. In this study, we chose the Mediterranean dwarf palm Chamaerops humilis (Arecaceae) to illustrate the isolated and joint effect of two contrasting introduced herbivores, the palm borer Paysandisia archon (Lepidoptera, Castniidae) and feral goats, on pollinator abundance and plant reproductive success. To this aim, we monitored moth herbivory and goat herbivory in four palm populations in Mallorca (Balearic Islands) during 2019 and 2020. The effect of herbivory varied widely depending on both the herbivore and the pollinator species. Moth herbivory had a positive effect on pollinator abundance and fruit initiation, whereas goat herbivory had a negative effect on inflorescence production, pollinator abundance and fruit initiation. In addition, both herbivores exerted unexpected nonadditive effects on palm reproduction. Palms attacked by both herbivore species produced many more inflorescences (up to 18-fold) but had a lower fruit initiation success (close to zero) than unattacked palms or those attacked by a single herbivore species. Interestingly, only one of the two main pollinator species (the nitidulid beetle Meligethinus pallidulus) was impacted by herbivory. Our study highlights the need to investigate the possible nonadditive effects of all coexisting herbivores on plant performance, especially when establishing conservation plans and pest control strategies.

Physicochemical and quality characteristics of New Zealand goat meat and its ultrastructural features

This study investigated the quality characteristics, physicochemical indexes and ultrastructure of New Zealand goat meat. The goat meat samples were sourced from New Zealand feral goats and Boer crossbreeds. Rawlongissimus thoracis(LT) andsemimembranosus(SM) muscles were evaluated after 48 hr of post-mortem storage at 4 °C. The cooked meat characteristics were studied after sous vide cooking at 60 °C for 6 h. Meat samples from both goat breeds exhibited intermediate pH values in the range of 5.76 and 5.98. Feral goat meat had higher collagen with lower solubility compared to Boer crosses. All the samples had high peak shear force from 62.1 to 87.3 N, and the variations were highly influenced by pH (p < 0.01) and collagen content (p < 0.05) and are dependent on muscle type (p < 0.01). For color, meat from feral and Boer varies significantly for redness (p < 0.01). Transmission electron micrographs from all samples revealed short sarcomeres ranging from 1.4 to 1.8 µm. Some super contracted muscle fibers were also observed, suggesting that muscles have undergone severe cold-shortening. Our findings indicate that regardless of genotype, the challenge for goat meat quality is its inherently high pH and its susceptibility to cold-shortening that impacts its technological properties.

Are feral goats intermediate hosts for Linguatula (Pentastomida) in Australia?

Feral goats, Capra hircus (Bovidae), currently occur across 28% of Australia, and are found in all states and territories as well as some offshore islands. Feral goats are harvested for live export or processed as game meat, with feral goats making up approximately 90% of goats sent to slaughter in Australia. Nymphs of the pentastomid parasite, Linguatula serrata, are common parasites of goats elsewhere in the world, where they cause Halzoun or Marrara disease in humans through the consumption of nymphs in raw or semi-cooked edible offal. Despite being commonly encountered in cattle at slaughter in Australia, L. serrata nymphs have never been reported from feral goats in Australia. Goats at slaughter, however, commonly show infections of lymph nodes, the majority of which are diagnosed as caseous lymphadenitis caused by bacteria, although a small number have no known aetiology. Examination of 33 feral goats from locations in New South Wales and South Australia found a Linguatula sp. nymph encased in the mesenteric lymph node of one goat from the Cooma region of New South Wales. The potential risk of transmission of Linguatula sp. to humans and other domestic animals is discussed. This study has highlighted the importance of continued surveys of feral animals for infection with parasites, especially as their distribution changes.

Succulent Conservation in the Sierra Gorda of Querétaro: the Impact of Feral Burros and Goats

Succulent Conservation in the Sierra Gorda of Querétaro: the Impact of Feral Burros and Goats

Quantifying the probability of detection of wild ungulates with the Judas technique.

The Judas technique is often used in control or eradication of particular vertebrate pests. The technique exploits the tendency of individuals to form social groups. A radio collar is affixed to an individual and its subsequent monitoring facilitates the detection of other conspecifics. Efficacy of this technique would be improved if managers could estimate the probability that a Judas individual would detect conspecifics. To calculate this probability, we estimated association rates of Judas individuals with other Judas individuals, given the length of time the Judas has been deployed. We developed a simple model of space-use for individual Judas animals and constrained detection probabilities to those specific areas. We then combined estimates for individual Judas animals to infer the probability that a wild individual could be detected in an area of interest via Judas surveillance. We illustrated the method by using data from a feral goat eradication program on Isla Santiago, Galápagos, and a feral pig eradication program on Santa Cruz Island, California. Association probabilities declined as the proximity between individual areas of use of a Judas pair decreased. Unconditional probabilities of detection within individual areas of use averaged 0.09 per month for feral pigs and 0.11 per month for feral goats. Probabilities that eradication had been achieved, given no detections of wild conspecifics, and an uninformative prior probability of eradication were 0.79 (90% CI 0.22-0.99) for feral goats and 0.87 (90% CI 0.44-1.0) for feral pigs. We envisage several additions to the analyses used that could improve estimates of Judas detection probability. Analyses such as these can help managers increase the efficacy of eradication efforts, leading to more effective effects to restore native biodiversity.

Hybridization between Alpine Ibex and Domestic Goat in the Alps: A Sporadic and Localized Phenomenon?

Simple SummaryThe Alpine ibex (Capra ibex) is a protected wild ungulate. The species is known to have a low genetic variability and to occasionally suffer from local population decline as a consequence of epidemic diseases. Another, less investigated, threat for the species’ long-term conservation is represented by the hybridization with feral domestic goats that may breed with ibex if abandoned in the mountain at the end of the summer pasture. Further reproduction and the spread of hybrids may jeopardize the genetic integrity of wild Alpine ibex. By means of an online survey and using a network of experts, we mapped unpublished evidence on observed hybridization events between Alpine ibex and feral domestic goats. The results of this study suggested that hybrids are currently distributed in several countries, and their presence is not a rare event, with some clusters including 4–20 probable hybrids. This calls for more studies clearly quantifying hybrids in Alpine ibex colonies, but also highlights the need for conservation actions aimed at controlling this phenomenon, such as the effective management of domestic herds grazing in Alpine ibex core areas and clear guidelines on hybrid management.The Alpine ibex (Capra ibex) is a mountain ungulate living in the European Alps. Although being currently classified as a species of Least Concern (LC) by the IUCN, a potential threat for its long-term conservation is introgression following hybridization with domestic goats (Capra hircus). Hybridization has been documented in Switzerland in captive and free ranging animals, although accurate data to assess the extent of this phenomenon in natural conditions in the Alps are lacking. Using an online survey and a network of experts, we collected and mapped unpublished evidence of hybridization events that occurred between Alpine ibex and feral domestic goats from 2000 to 2021. The results of this study showed that hybrids are distributed in most of the Alpine countries, and their presence is not a sporadic event, with some clusters including 4–20 probable hybrids. Our results illustrated the need for establishing a standardized and effective protocol to identify hybrids in the field (such as a formal description of the morphological traits characterizing hybrids), as well as clear guidelines for hybrid management. Even more importantly, this study also highlighted the need for actions aimed at avoiding hybridization, such as the effective management of domestic herds grazing in Alpine ibex core areas.