Feral Deer Research Articles

The first finding of Dictyocaulus cervi and Dictyocaulus skrjabini (Nematoda) in feral fallow deer (Dama dama) in Australia

Feral deer are widespread throughout Australia with the capacity to impact livestock production via transmission of parasites. Samples of Dama dama (fallow deer), Rusa unicolor (sambar deer), Cervus elaphus (red deer) and an unidentified deer were sourced from various locations in south-eastern Australia for examination for parasites. Adult nematodes were collected from the lungs of all deer species across four separate geographical locations. The nematodes were identified as species of Dictyocaulus through both morphological and molecular means. Species identification based on morphological features was difficult, with many measurements from described species overlapping. Molecular analyses targeting three markers, namely 18S rRNA, ITS2, and cox1 revealed the presence of two distinct species: Dictyocaulus cervi and Dictyocaulus skrjabini. These are the first genetically confirmed reports of species of Dictyocaulus in feral deer in Australia, and although cross-transmission of species of Dictyocaulus with livestock has not yet been reported, it cannot be completely discounted without further research.

A new species of land snail, Xanthomelon amurndamilumila, from the North East Isles off Groote Eylandt (= Ayangkidarrba), Gulf of Carpentaria, Australia (Stylommatophora, Camaenidae)

This paper introduces Xanthomelon amurndamilumilasp. nov., a newly-discovered land snail species inhabiting the North East Isles, offshore from Groote Eylandt (= Ayangkidarrba), north-western Gulf of Carpentaria, in the Northern Territory, Australia. Specimens of this species were first collected during the 2021 Bush Blitz expedition to Groote Eylandt, a large offshore archipelago previously unexplored for land snails. The taxonomic status of the new species was established through a comprehensive analysis of comparative morphology and mitochondrial genetics: X. amurndamilumila forms a maximally supported clade closely related to X. arnhemense and is characterised by a unique combination of morphological characteristics, including smaller shell size, distinctive sculpture of collabral ridges and specific features of its reproductive anatomy. The genetic divergence and phylogenetic relationships suggest historical isolation. While the discovery of X. amurndamilumilasp. nov. enriches our understanding of land snail diversity in the Northern Territory, its conservation status is of concern on North East Island because of habitat degradation caused by feral deer.

Feral Deer in Victoria – record your sightings

Feral Deer in Victoria – record your sightings

Aerial culling invasive alien deer with shotguns improves efficiency and welfare outcomes

Invasive alien deer (known in Australia as ‘feral deer’; hereafter, ‘alien deer’) are some of Australia’s worst emerging pest species. Recently, the Government of South Australia launched a four-year program to reduce the populations of alien fallow deer (Dama dama). The program will focus on coordinating landscape-scale aerial culls and seeks to deliver the most efficient and humane approach to aerial culling. We sourced data from a recent program trialling a new approach to aerial culling that incorporated advanced thermal technology and a second shooter with a shotgun to target fallow deer. We reviewed available video and audio records of 104 deer culled in the program to assess efficiency and welfare outcomes. We collected information on the number of shotgun and rifle rounds fired per animal, time between first shot with a shotgun and apparent death, and pursuit time. We completed field dissections of 20 individuals targeted in the program to assess the lethality of wounds inflicted with shotgun pellets. We also compared program costs and efficiency against published and unpublished data from ten other aerial-culling programs for alien deer in South Australia since 2009. A total of 383 shotgun rounds and 10 rifle rounds were used on 104 fallow deer in the focal program. We documented strong improvements to animal welfare for alien deer targeted with shotguns. The mean (± standard error) time between first shot and apparent death with a shotgun was 11.1 ± 0.7 seconds; mean pursuit time between detection and apparent death was 49.5 ± 3.4 seconds. Pursuit time increased with subsequent deer controlled within a group; the maximum pursuit time for any individual was 159.0 seconds. All autopsied animals had received lethal wounds from shotgun pellets, with 100% receiving lung-penetrating damage and 70% also receiving heart-penetrating damage. While a program that uses a shotgun and rifle combined with a second shooter and thermographer can cost more to mobilise, the outcomes measured in cost deer-1 made it the most cost-effective approach of any program we assessed. Control options that deliver improved animal welfare outcomes and increase efficiency are desirable for managing expanding populations of alien deer in South Australia and elsewhere.

Feral Deer in our area

Feral Deer in our area

Maintaining the Many Societal Benefits of Rangelands: The Case of Hawaiʻi

Well-managed rangelands provide important economic, environmental, and cultural benefits. Yet, many rangelands worldwide are experiencing pressures of land-use change, overgrazing, fire, and drought, causing rapid degradation. These pressures are especially acute in the Hawaiian Islands, which we explore as a microcosm with some broadly relevant lessons. Absent stewardship, land in Hawaiʻi is typically subject to degradation through the spread and impacts of noxious invasive plant species; feral pigs, goats, deer, sheep, and cattle; and heightened fire risk. We first provide a framework, and then review the science demonstrating the benefits of well-managed rangelands, for production of food; livelihoods; watershed services; climate security; soil health; fire risk reduction; biodiversity; and a wide array of cultural values. Findings suggest that rangelands, as part of a landscape mosaic, contribute to social and ecological health and well-being in Hawaiʻi. We conclude by identifying important knowledge gaps around rangeland ecosystem services and highlight the need to recognize rangelands and their stewards as critical partners in achieving key sustainability goals, and in bridging the long-standing production-conservation divide.

Quantifying variations in browsing pressure caused by feral deer for a range of threatened ecological communities and plant growth forms

AbstractGlobally, high‐density populations of feral deer have been associated with a range of negative ecological consequences. Within Australia, limited quantitative research has assessed the impacts of deer, particularly in threatened ecological communities (TECs). Our study aimed to quantify the impact of feral deer on the herbivory of a range of woody plant species, non‐woody growth forms and TECs; and assess whether feral deer increase herbivory in TECs above background rates caused by native herbivores. We surveyed 356 transects across 89 sites representing eight TECs and collected herbivory data for woody and non‐woody plants. At each site, we recorded the presence or absence of deer sign and abundance of macropod pellets to account for variations in herbivory between groups of sympatric species. Generalised linear mixed models were developed to predict: (i) proportion of individual plants browsed (or grazed); and (ii) average browsing (or grazing) intensity for woody plant species and non‐woody plants. Controlling for macropod abundance, we found the average grazing intensity and proportion of non‐woody plants grazed was higher when deer were present compared to absent. Specifically, grazing pressure on rushes, cycads, sedges and grasses was significantly higher where deer were present. In contrast, we did not observe a significant impact of deer on woody plant species. The presence of deer resulted in higher grazing intensity in coastal saltmarsh, freshwater wetland, littoral rainforest and bangalay sand forest TECs. Although the deer population across our study region generally appears to be at low density compared to neighbouring regions, their presence is resulting in grazing pressure above that caused by native herbivores for a range of non‐woody plants. Our results contribute to a growing body of research about the ecological impacts of feral deer in Australia and can be used as a baseline for ongoing regional monitoring of deer impacts in TECs.

Verification of rabbits as intermediate hosts for Linguatula serrata (Pentastomida) in Australia.

We confirm the presence of nymphs of the introduced pentastomid, Linguatula serrata, in the introduced rabbit, Oryctolagus cuniculus, in Australia, based on morphological and molecular results. Two nymphs were collected from a single rabbit near the Kosciuszko National Park in New South Wales. Unlike reports of nymphs from domestic animals, these nymphs were not encapsulated, despite having the morphological features of infective nymphs. The possibility of different development pathways in lagomorphs is discussed. Examination of feral deer for L. serrata was unsuccessful and potential reasons for a lack of infection in these animals are postulated. Our results reiterate the need for a combined morphological and molecular approach to the identification of L. serrata. Further sampling of a range of feral and native animals is required to determine the true range of intermediate hosts and their relative importance in the transmission of L. serrata in Australia.

Feral horse impacts: The Kosciuszko Science Conference, Thursday 8 November 2018, Shine Dome, Australian Academy of Science, Canberra

Feral horse impacts: The Kosciuszko Science Conference, Thursday 8 November 2018, Shine Dome, Australian Academy of Science, Canberra

The eradication of fallow deer (Dama dama) and feral goats (Capra hircus) from Kangaroo Island, South Australia

ABSTRACTAn eradication program for fallow deer (Dama dama) and feral goats (Capra hircus) was initiated on Kangaroo Island in 2005 and is now close to completion. The program followed established principles for successful eradication which included effective planning, gaining support from stakeholders, developing and implementing effective control and monitoring, and minimising reinfestation risks. Support for the eradication program was high based on results from community surveys and public meetings. The distribution of feral goats and fallow deer was identified initially using community observations. The area occupied by goats was divided into seven management units which were targeted sequentially, but the deer population was small and could be targeted effectively across the entire distribution. Judas goats were an essential part of the program and assisted in the location and destruction of over 1200 feral goats. Since the program began, restrictions for keeping domestic goats and deer have been tightened with the implementation of a permit system. There are no known feral goats surviving. No juvenile deer have been detected for four years and only two female deer. Monitoring continues to determine if other breeding individuals remain.

Photoreactivation and dark repair of environmental E. coli strains following 24 kHz continuous ultrasound and UV-C irradiation

ABSTRACTIn this study, effects of 24 kHz continuous ultrasound and UV-C on inactivation and potential repair of environmental E. coli strains were studied through a culture based method and a metabolic activity assay. Three environmental E. coli strains isolated from fecal samples of feral hog and deer and treated wastewater effluent were studied and compared with a laboratory E. coli strain (ATCC® 10798). Metabolic activity of E. coli cells during the inactivation and repair period was assessed using the AlamarBlue® assay. Transmission electron microscopy assays were also performed to evaluate morphological damage of bacterial cell wall. After 24 h of photoreactivation period, laboratory E. coli strain (ATCC® 10798) reactivated by 30% and 42% in contrast to E. coli isolate from treated wastewater effluent, which reactivated by 53% and 82% after ultrasound and UV-C treatment, respectively. Possible shearing and reduction in cell size of E. coli strains exposed to ultrasound was revealed by transmission electron micrographs. Metabolic activity of E. coli strains was greatly reduced due to morphological damage to cell membrane caused by 24 kHz continuous ultrasound. Based upon experimental data and TEM micrographs, it could be concluded that ultrasound irradiation has potential in advanced water treatment and water reuse applications.

Public health aspects of feral deer, goats and pigs in New Zealand: A review to inform eradication decisions

AbstractThe research described in this paper sought to review the public health issues arising from the presence of feral deer, goats and pigs in New Zealand. Key findings were that while recreational hunting of these animals is likely to provide physical and mental health benefits, and contribute to food security, likely health‐related harms from these animals include (i) injury risks from the associated firearms used in hunting; (ii) as reservoirs for zoonotic diseases; (iii) reduced mental health benefits of wilderness experience and natural ecosystems; and (iv) likely contribution to flooding risk via forest damage. Further research could better quantify these issues.

Feral deer damage in Tasmanian restoration plantings

Feral deer damage in Tasmanian restoration plantings

A review of introduced cervids in Chile

We review the extent of exotic deer distributions in Chile, which are encountered in all provinces, including Tierra del Fuego, except for possibly Region III; many deer are contained in at least 107 enclosures. Red deer (Cervus elaphus) by far has the largest feral population of exotic cervids in southern South America, providing source animals that can easily cross the Andes between Chile and Argentina. Red deer was introduced from Europe to the central valley of Chile in 1928. Since the 1940s, feral populations have also expanded from Argentina into Chile, by way of easily accessible, low-elevation mountain passes of the Andes, accompanied by further direct shipments from Argentina. The area occupied by 1990 was estimated at 3400 km2, whereas an analysis in 2003 estimated an area of 7700 km2. The overall area invaded by 2003 was between 37°42′S and 54°55′S, and 73°36′W and 69°50′W (Argentina and Chile combined, although non-contiguous). Ecological impact of the red deer in Chile has been described since 1981, and red deer features in the Chilean Pest Manual. A conservative rate for the red deer expansion was estimated at 1 km/year, but likely is more rapid where habitat modifications facilitate movement. The pre-Columbian northern limit of the native cervid huemul (Hippocamelus bisulcus) was 30°S, and because red deer has occupied all habitat types currently used by huemul, it could thus spread >750 km further north. To the south, all areas are suitable for red deer. Invasion patterns will depend on additional intentional introductions and enclosures on both sides of the Andes because of the omnipresent risk of escapes. Fallow, axis and roe deer (Dama dama, Axis axis, Capreolus capreolus, respectively) also have been introduced to Chile and occur in many enclosures. Fallow deer recently escaped on Chiloé Island, became established and raised concerns because of its potential impacts on several endemic species on the island. The striking lack of information on feral deer may relate to policies and laws about firearms and restricted access to hunting areas, resulting in the apparent absence of popular hunting, which, nevertheless, could be a potential tool should the invasion continue and lead to future deer overabundance.

Disease spread models in wild and feral animal populations: application of artificial life models

The role that wild and feral animal populations might play in the incursion and spread of important transboundary animal diseases, such as foot and mouth disease (FMD), has received less attention than is warranted by the potential impacts. An artificial life model (Sirca) has been used to investigate this issue in studies based on spatially referenced data sets from southern Texas. An incursion of FMD in which either feral pig or deer populations were infected could result in between 698 and 1557 infected cattle and affect an area of between 166 km2 and 455 km2 after a 100-day period. Although outbreak size in deer populations can be predicted bythe size of the local deer population initially infected, the resulting outbreaks in feral pig populations are less predictable. Also, in the case of deer, the size of potential outbreaks might depend on the season when the incursion occurs. The impact of various mitigation strategies on disease spread has also been investigated. The approach used in the studies reviewed here explicitly incorporates the spatial distribution and relationships between animal populations, providing a new framework to explore potential impacts, costs, and control strategies.

Digestibility of Forage Diets of White-tailed Deer (Odocoileus virginanus, Hays) using Different Ruminal Fluid Inocula

Clemente, F., Riquelme, E., Mendoza, G.D., Bárcena, R., González, S. and Ricalde, R. 2005. Digestibility of forage diets of white-tailed deer (Odocoileus virginanus, Hays) using different ruminal fluid inocula. J. Appl. Anim. Res., 27: 71–76. Ruminal inocula obtained from goat, cow and feral and captive deer were used to determine in vitro dry matter digestibility (IVDMD) of forages and diets consumed by white tailed deer in a temperate forest in Mexico. No differences (P>0.05) in IVDMD were detected using different inoculum sources. The IVDMD (%) of gramineae component of diet was lower (P<0.05) for deer ruminal fluid (feral 23.0, captive 28.0) than that from domestic ruminants (cow 31.9, goat 31.5). Correlation coefficients results using ruminal fluids from feral deer and domestic ruminants were high (0.97–0.99). The IVDMD of the forage diets varied significantly among plant groups and seasons and was 48% (summer), 32% (fall) and 29% (winter). Ruminal fluid from domestic ruminants can be used to estimate digestibility of forages consumed by feral white tailed deer.

Expanding ranges of wild and feral deer in Great Britain

ABSTRACT 1. It is often stated that wild deer in Great Britain are increasing in range and number. This study presents the first quantified estimate of national range expansion for all six species. From national surveys of deer presence in 10 km squares between 1972 and 2002, the red deer range is estimated to have expanded at a compound rate of 0.3% per year, fallow deer at 1.8%, Chinese water deer at 2.0%, roe deer at 2.3%, Japanese sika at 5.3% and Reeves’ muntjac at 8.2%. 2. Each species is expected to expand its range further for the foreseeable future. The most widespread species, roe deer, is predicted to be present within 79% of all 10 km squares in mainland Britain within 10 years. 3. Deer range expansion brings a combination of benefits and costs, and some degree of management is considered necessary to limit both environmental damage and deer suffering.

Liver copper, selenium and vitamin B12 concentrations in farmed and feral red deer (Cervus elaphus)

AIM: To compare liver copper, selenium and vitamin B12 concentrations in red deer of farmed and feral origin. METHODS: Liver samples were collected from red deer at a South Island deer slaughter premise and a game packing house in November 2000. The site of origin and age of each animal were recorded. A subsample of 107 livers was selected (n=5-10 per site of origin and age category) from farmed deer from central Canterbury, Nelson and Westland, and from feral deer from north, central and south Westland. Samples were analysed for copper, selenium and vitamin B12 concentrations and reported on a wet-matter basis. RESULTS: Mean liver copper concentrations for farmed and feral yearlings were 267 and 889 µmol/kg, respectively, and for farmed and feral adults were 206 and 677 µmol/kg, respectively. Liver copper concentrations were lower for farmed than for feral deer (p<0.001) and for feral adults than for feral yearlings (p=0.002). Mean liver selenium concentrations in farmed and feral yearlings were 2050 and 1539 nmol/kg, respectively, and in farmed and feral adults were 1938 and 1625 nmol/kg, respectively. Liver selenium concentrations varied significantly between regions and overall, farmed deer had higher liver selenium concentrations than feral deer (p=0.04). Mean liver vitamin B12 concentrations in farmed and feral yearlings were 456 and 742 nmol/kg, and for farmed and feral adults were 428 and 869 nmol/kg, respectively. Liver vitamin B12 concentrations were lower for farmed than for feral deer (p<0.001). CONCLUSION: Feral deer had higher liver copper and vitamin B12 concentrations and lower liver selenium concentrations than farmed deer in the regions studied.

Damage and Recovery of Cycas micronesica after Typhoon Paka1

Typhoon Paka passed over Guam on 16 December 1997, and caused extensive damage to the Cycas micronesica population. Defoliation reduced subsequent stem extension and leaf size, and increased synchrony of flushes. Decapitated plants developed numerous adventitious buds on damaged stems during recovery. Toppled plants were selectively browsed by feral deer and pigs. Epiphytes increased susceptibility to decapitation or toppling. Growth reduction was minimal and ephemeral, indicating that this species is highly resilient to tropical cyclone damage.

Isolation of mycobacteria from lymph node lesions in deer

A total of 14,842 farmed deer were slaughtered and examined postmortem in Irish abattoirs between January 1993 and September 1996. Lymph node lesions were detected in 119 deer and these...