Maintenance Of Fences Research Articles

Assessing mammal fence crossing and local fence management in relation to classical swine fever spread in Japan.

Infectious diseases at the wildlife-livestock-human interface have become a crucial issue, and evidence-based measures are growing increasingly important. One countermeasure against animal diseases in wildlife is using fencing to contain and reduce disease spread and transmission rates between wild populations; however, quantitative assessments on fencing are rare. Moreover, existing research on fencing has highlighted knowledge gaps on the social and ecological aspects relevant to the use and design of fences. To control the spread of classical swine fever, fences were installed from the east to west in Gifu Prefecture, Japan, by March 2019, with the aim of restricting wild boar movement. To clarify the process of installation and maintenance of the fences, we conducted semi-structured interviews with prefectural government officers in Gifu Prefecture. Additionally, we installed infrared-triggered cameras at fence locations with and without gaps to evaluate the fence permeability of mammals. We used a generalized linear mixed model to evaluate the relationship between the presence of gaps and the relative abundance and permeability of each mammal. Our findings showed that the occurrence of gaps was inevitable during the installation and management of wide-area perimeter fence in Japan, partly because of social factors. For example, fences could not be installed on roads that were frequently used by residents and were not adequately maintained owing to budgetary reasons in some cases. Analysis of footage from the infrared-triggered cameras revealed that several mammal species crossed the fence at gaps and even had the ability to cross the gapless parts of the fences. Wild boars crossed through the gaps regularly. It is possible that Sika deer, Japanese serows, raccoons, Japanese badgers, raccoon dogs, Japanese macaques, and feral cats crossed through fence gaps because their relative abundance was high at gap locations. In contrast, Japanese hares slipped through the fence mesh rather than crossing through the gaps. In conclusion, we suggest that coordination and collaboration among related parties, a sufficient supply of fence materials, and securing a budget for fence maintenance are important for fence installation and maintenance. Furthermore, as fence gaps are inevitable, technical development of countermeasures for these gaps could be effective.

Animal use of fence crossings in southwestern rangelands.

Net‐wire fencing built to confine livestock is common on rangelands in the Southwestern USA, yet the impacts of livestock fencing on wildlife are largely unknown. Many wildlife species cross beneath fences at defined crossing locations because they prefer to crawl underneath rather than jump over fences. Animals occasionally become entangled jumping or climbing over fences, leading to injury or death. More commonly, repeated crossings under net‐wire fencing by large animals lead to fence damage, though the damage is often tolerated by landowners until the openings affect the ability to enclose livestock. The usage, placement, characteristics, and passage rates of fence crossings beneath net‐wire fencing are poorly understood. We monitored 20 randomly selected fence crossings on net‐wire livestock fencing across two study sites on rangelands in South Texas, USA, from April 2018 to March 2019. We assessed the characteristics of fence‐crossing locations (openings beneath the fence created by animals to aid in crossing) and quantified crossing rates and the probability of crossing by all species of animals via trail cameras. We documented 10,889 attempted crossing events, with 58% (n = 6271) successful. Overall, 15 species of medium‐ and large‐size mammals and turkey (Meleagris gallopavo) contributed to crossing events. Crossing locations received 3–4 crossing attempts per day on average, but the number of attempts and probability of successful crossing varied by location and fence condition. The probability of crossing attempts was most consistently influenced by the opening size of the crossing and season; as crossing size (opening) increased, the probability of successful crossing significantly increased for all species. Peaks in crossing activity corresponded with species' daily and seasonal movements and activity. The density and size of fence‐crossing locations were dependent on fence maintenance and not associated with vegetation communities or habitat variables. However, crossing locations were often re‐established in the same locations after fence repairs. This is one of the few studies to monitor how all animal species present interacted with net‐wire livestock fencing in rangelands. Our results will help land managers understand the impact of net‐wire livestock fencing on animal movement.

Human–elephant conflict mitigation as a public good: what determines fence maintenance?

Negative interactions between humans and elephants are known to have serious consequences, resulting in loss of life and deterioration in the quality of life for both species. Reducing human–elephant conflicts (HEC) is essential for elephant conservation as well as social justice. Non-lethal electric fences placed around villages or communities are a widely used intervention to mitigate HEC. Such barriers act as non-excludable and non-subtractable resources—i.e., public goods—that must be maintained collectively by beneficiaries or the State. Despite being fairly effective when well maintained, most such fences in northeast India are poorly maintained. This leads to our central question: why are some fences well maintained and others poorly maintained? We studied 19 such fences using qualitative comparative analysis, Ostrom's social-ecological systems framework, and a grounded theory approach, incorporating qualitative social science tools. We found that, contrary to our hypothesis, the functionality of fences cannot be predicted based on the design of the fence, whether or not the community made cash payments, or ethnic homogeneity or leadership in the village. Instead, we found there are three potential pathways of maintenance: (1) a community maintainer, (2) the community self-organizes, and (3) the Forest Department. Maintenance occurs when there is a congruence between perceived costs and benefits for the entity responsible for fence maintenance. These costs and benefits are diverse, including not just material benefits but intangibles like goodwill, sense of safety, social standing, and a feeling of fairness. We highlight these factors and provide recommendations for practitioners and policy.

The mitigating effect of capturing nuisance wildlife with community-based guard fence maintenance on damage caused by wild boars and deer—Quantitative/qualitative evaluation of improving damage and awareness using action research

The mitigating effect of capturing nuisance wildlife with community-based guard fence maintenance on damage caused by wild boars and deer—Quantitative/qualitative evaluation of improving damage and awareness using action research

Effects of Livestock Exclusion on Stream Banks and Riparian Vegetation in Washington and Oregon

Livestock exclusion is a widespread restoration technique in the Pacific Northwest to protect and improve riparian and stream habitats. To assess stream restoration outcomes from excluding livestock, the Washington State Salmon Recovery Funding Board and the Oregon Watershed Enhancement Board evaluated 12 livestock exclusion projects from 2004 to 2017 using a before-after control-impact design. Paired treatment and control reaches were monitored once before restoration implementation (year 0) and several years after implementation (years 1, 3, 5, and 10) to assess bank erosion, bank canopy cover, riparian vegetation structure, pool tail fine sediment, and exclosure fencing function. Livestock exclusion significantly reduced bank erosion and bare ground. Bank erosion in treatment reaches decreased from 44% pre-project to 11% by year 10. In treatment reaches, bare ground was over 1.5 times lower in year 10 than pre-project. Most treatment reaches had intact fencing at the conclusion of the ten-year monitoring period, but there were instances where fencing did not fully function as intended, allowing livestock to access riparian areas inside the exclosure. Several metrics did not respond over time, which may be the result of several factors, including limitations of the sampling protocols, evidence of livestock grazing in treatment reaches, lack of site stratification, control reaches that were not well matched with treatment reaches, and short-duration of pre-project data collection. Despite these limitations, we still detected significant decreases in bank erosion and bare ground within treatment reaches. Future livestock exclusion monitoring should consider focus on ensuring fence maintenance, improved monitoring oversight, and the use of more quantitative monitoring protocols.

Quantifying wildlife responses to conservation fencing in East Africa

The fencing of protected areas is increasing worldwide. However, the implementation of fences for conservation has outpaced scientific assessment of their effectiveness, non-target impacts, and long-term costs. We assessed landscape predictors of fence crossing sites and employed camera traps over a one-year period to investigate wildlife responses to a conservation fence around Lake Nakuru National Park, Kenya. Specifically, we measured the impact of the fence on wild mammal movement, and the temporal impacts of fence maintenance on wildlife crossings and behavior. Cameras captured more than 65,000 detections of animals approaching fences, with 3626 observed crossings over 2818 trap nights at 19 sites. Using these data, we developed a guide to classifying fence-specific mammal behaviors. Thirty-eight wild mammal species approached known weak points in the fence, and 27 species were recorded crossing the fence. No single environmental variable predicted detection or fence crossing points for all species, but seasonality, human activity, habitat visibility, and proximity to an adjacent protected area were each correlated with species-specific crossing locations. Additionally, breaches of repaired fence-crossing locations occurred within days of maintenance. We conclude that popular, ‘one-size-fits-all’, conservation fence designs may be ineffective and costly for restraining movement of many wildlife species. We recommend that those deploying conservation fences start with clearly articulated management goals, that fence maintenance be informed by taxa-specific tendencies to breach fences, and that managers consider the strategic creation of wildlife corridors, overpasses, or ungulate-proof fences to link fenced protected areas with surrounding habitat.

Riparian health improves with managerial effort to implement livestock distribution practices

Optimising the spatial distribution of free-ranging livestock is a significant challenge in expansive, grazed landscapes across the globe. Grazing managers use practices such as herding (i.e. droving), strategic placement of off-stream livestock drinking water and nutritional supplements, and strategic fencing in attempts to distribute livestock away from sensitive streams and riparian areas. We conducted a cross-sectional survey of 46 cattle-grazed riparian areas and associated stream reaches embedded in rugged range landscapes to examine relationships between implementation of these management practices, stocking rate, and riparian health. We determined in-stream benthic invertebrate assemblages at each site to serve as an integrative metric of riparian health. We also collected information from the grazing manager on stocking rate and implementation of livestock distribution practices at each site over the decade before this study. Off-stream livestock drinking-water sources were implemented at just two sites (4.3%), indicating that this was not a common distribution practice in these remote management units. We found no significant relationship of riparian health (i.e. invertebrate richness metrics) with stocking rate (P ≥ 0.45 in all cases), or with the simple implementation (yes/no) of off-stream nutritional supplements, fence maintenance, and livestock herding (P ≥ 0.22 in all cases). However, we did find significant positive relationships between riparian health and managerial effort (person-days spent per year for each individual practice) to implement off-stream nutritional supplements and fence maintenance (P ≤ 0.017 in all cases). Livestock herding effort had an apparent positive association with riparian health (P ≥ 0.2 in all cases). Results highlight that site-specific variation in managerial effort accounts for some of the observed variation in practice effectiveness, and that appropriate managerial investments in grazing distributional practices can improve riparian conditions.

When do predator exclusion fences work best? A spatially explicit modelling approach

Abstract Context Exclusion fences are increasingly used to prevent interactions between predators (introduced and native) and assets such as endangered species or livestock. However, challenges remain in identifying when exclusion fences are an optimal investment and the intended outcome is likely to be achieved. The level of association with complementary methods of control that is needed is also unclear. AimsWe aimed to quantify the interactions among factors that affect fencing efficiency, including the size of the fenced area, the fence permeability, the initial density of the predator population, and its survival of complementary control methods. MethodsUsing a spatially explicit, individual-based model, we simulated wild dog (dingo) populations as a proxy for describing predator dynamics inside a fenced area under different management practices and fence designs. We then fit a generalised linear model to the model outcomes to assess the effects of the four factors mentioned above. Key resultsLethal control had a strong effect on wild dog density when the survival of control was lower than 0.5. Fences generally had an effect on wild dog density only when their permeability was lower than ~1% and their effect was most noticeable when the initial density was very low (<2 dogs per 100km2), or when survival of control was very low (<0.5). Conversely, when the initial density was very high (~12 dogs per 100km2), a fence with a low permeability (<1.5%) caused the paradoxical effect that wild dog density could be higher than that obtained with a more permeable fence. Wild dog eradication was possible only when survival of control was 0.25 or lower, except when either initial density or fence permeability were extremely low (<2 dogs per 100km2 and <0.1% respectively). ConclusionsOur results demonstrated that large exclusion fences can be an effective aid in managing predator populations. We recommend that this tool should be used as a preventive measure before predators establish a population inside the area targeted for exclusion, in tandem with lethal control, or when an initial marked reduction of predator density can be achieved. We also demonstrated that eradication can be achieved only when a narrow combination of parameters is met. Implications Land managers should carefully evaluate when and at what scale control tools should be deployed to control wild dog populations. Landscape application of exclusion fences faces the challenge of high maintenance to ensure low permeability, coupled with very high sustained suppression of wild dog density, which are unlikely to be feasible options in the long term. Conversely, the same control techniques could provide efficient asset protection at a smaller scale where fence maintenance and sufficient control effort can be sustained.

No sitting on the fence: protecting wetlands from feral pig damage by exclusion fences requires effective fence maintenance

Feral pigs damage the significant ecological and cultural values of tropical Australian wetlands. Control measures such as culling, baiting, and trapping can reduce overall pig populations, but do not eliminate the substantial physical damage to wetlands that can occur from just a few individuals. Exclusion fences have been adopted as a potential technique to prevent damage to selected wetlands. To test the effectiveness of exclusion fences we measured the physical damage caused by pigs to multiple wetlands in the Archer River catchment of tropical northern Australia. Wetlands were fenced using a typical cattle exclusion fence, a specific pig exclusion fence or had no fence. Initial analyses of these fence treatments showed no significant difference in the intensity of physical pig damage to exposed wetland sediments and fringing vegetation. However, several of the pig exclusion fences were found to have been compromised. Reanalysis indicated wetlands with functioning pig exclusion fences had no physical pig damage and this was significantly less damage than in all other treatments. In contrast, wetlands with compromised pig exclusion fences had damage that was statistically equivalent to sites without fences or with cattle exclusion fences, but in individual cases had the worst damage recorded in any of the treatments. Compromised pig exclusion fencing of wetlands can thus be worse than having no fencing at all. This suggests that the successful prevention of pig damage to wetlands by exclusion fences requires ongoing and effective fence monitoring and maintenance regimes.

Indirect costs of sheep depredation by large carnivores in Sweden

ABSTRACTCarnivore depredation gives rise to direct costs for killed and injured animals as well as indirect costs due to productivity losses and additional labor requirements. Our aim was to investigate indirect costs to sheep farmers in Sweden due to carnivore depredation and presence. We estimated these costs using survey data describing conditions in 2013. Reproduction and time spent on fence maintenance and taking care of animals were analyzed to isolate effects of carnivore exposure from other factors that affect these variables. Results indicate that both high carnivore densities and attacks are associated with comparatively lower sheep reproduction. Farmers who experienced an attack spent much more on labor for maintaining fences, searching for lost animals, and bringing the animals in for the night. Results suggest that the indirect cost per adult female sheep is EUR23 for nonattacked herds in areas with high carnivore densities; EUR71 in herds that were attacked and where sheep are kept on fenced grazing land; and EUR100 on attacked summer‐pasture farms, where free‐range grazing is applied. A flat rate compensation per adult female sheep, differentiated between herds in areas with high carnivore density that have not been attacked and herds that have been attacked could be used to compensate sheep farmers for these costs. © 2019 The Wildlife Society.

Wild pigs breach farm fence through harvest time in southern San Joaquin Valley

Wild pigs cause around $1 billion of damage to agriculture in the United States each year — foraging on crops, breaking branches and vines, and damaging irrigation lines and fences — but little is known about how and when they access agricultural fields. We used wildlife camera traps to document and describe wild pig access to two fenced southern San Joaquin Valley farms. Pigs breached fences around agricultural fields, especially during the harvest period when crops were ripe, and almost exclusively at night, outside of the regulated, daytime recreational pig hunting period. GPS data from an adult boar revealed that pigs may travel long distances from wildlands to reach crops. The results of our case study suggest that increasing monitoring and maintenance of fences during the harvest season and removing pigs that have learned to access farms may help reduce pig damage to agricultural fields. The results also suggest a formal scientific investigation of risk factors and strategies to reduce wild pig damage is warranted.

Evaluation of the Operational Speed for Iraqi Railways Using Geomatics Techniques

Theresearch evaluation is the current operational speeds of Iraqi railway lines within Geomatics techniques . It aims improving operational speeds where fined the level of speeds in Iraq has reached in some places to (5 km/h) for the north line. Also determining the factors affecting the speed and causing the decline of the railway, such as soil, the old design of line, the large number of irregular crossings, bad maintenance of fences, means of communication is very bad and almost without safty fences , a single line, except some lines and some climate element which reflected negatively on the performance of the railway, the large number of accidents with operational speed of passenger trains ranged between (20-90) km/h at a time (10) hours for the south line, and (20-80) km/h for north line. it is improved by reducing the time on the orders of caution, time to enter and exit from the station, stop at the stations time, increasing operational speed up to (80-90) km/ h, these improvements one possibly achieved by raising the irregular crossings or convert regular crossings to overpass , treatment of soil, good maintenance (for the rail lines, the protective fence), and the use of modern communication and signals system. A proposal to reduce the trip time from Baghdad to Basrah to (5.13) hour at a percentage 23% to (98-110.7) km/h(because it’s the only working line) as in the case at India where a study for upgrading track standards of conventional track with diesel and electric traction which is close to the specifications of the reality case of the Iraqi railway nets .

The Influence of Human–Elephant Conflict on Electric Fence Management and Perception Among Different Rural Communities in Laikipia County, Kenya

ABSTRACTElectrified fences are commonly used in Kenya to prevent human–elephant conflict. This research addressed the social perceptions of electrified wildlife fences by assessing community-level individual views of the fences and the willingness of community members’ involvement in fence management. In Laikipia County, Kenya, a population sample of people in two communities living near an electrified fencing and experiencing different levels of human–elephant conflict (i.e., crop raids) were surveyed about their perceptions of the fence and fence management. Respondents in communities with more frequent conflict were less favorable in their ratings about fence effectiveness and were more willing to pay for fence maintenance. In addition, a sample group of pastoralists indicated a positive attitude toward the fence, due to a perceived improvement in livestock safety from predators and theft. These benefits appeared to outweigh the difficulties the fence could impose on livestock management and cross country travel.

Undermining game fences: who is digging holes in Kalahari sands?

AbstractThe effectiveness of game fencing as a tool to promote coexistence between humans and wildlife is highly dependent on the maintenance of fences. It is vital to identify animal species, which dig holes under fences, and their digging behaviour to maintain game fences appropriately. We provide data on some of southern Africa's major hole‐digging animal species for a simple albeit effective method enabling stakeholders to categorize species that are digging holes underneath game fences in deep sand habitats by species‐specific knowledge on sizes and shapes of holes. Using Botswana's Khutse Game Reserve/Central Kalahari Game Reserve fence as an example, we highlight the temporal aspect in the process of hole digging and enlargement. We present a method to determine the pressure a fence experiences by a number of hole‐digging species. Furthermore, we provide data on the time frame of necessary maintenance actions, required to prevent large predators from transgressing this specific fence line. We were especially interested in the effectiveness of fences in excluding African lions from human‐dominated areas. The predators proved to be very difficult to fence in and extremely opportunistic. They mostly utilized holes that were initially excavated by other, even very small species.

エゾシカ高密度生息域における捕獲および防鹿柵による農業被害の抑制効果

Recently, sika deer (Cervus nippon yesoensis) populations have caused significant crop losses (about five billion yen in 2009) in Hokkaido, Japan. The losses have been a severe social problem in eastern Hokkaido, which is overcrowded with the deer. We verified the effectiveness of culling and fencing in reducing crop damage over a 16-year period (1994–2009) in eastern Hokkaido. We constructed models that accounted for the crop damage costs associated with the amount of deer harvest and proportion of fence-protected fields on a municipality scale. The models revealed that fencing is an effective countermeasure for preventing crop damage, while culling is not adequately strong to reduce it. Furthermore, agricultural products were protected effectively if the fences covered at least 25% of the boundary between agricultural fields and forest edges. However, the effectiveness of fences declined over time. Our results suggest that increased culling pressure and regular fence maintenance are both required to ameliorate crop losses due to sika deer.

Beehive fences as effective deterrents for crop-raiding elephants: field trials in northern Kenya

Increasing elephant populations in Kenya since 1989 have been widely praised as a conservation success story. However, where elephants and agricultural land overlap, incidents of human‐elephant conflict are on the increase. Wildlife managers and farmers are now trying different farm-based deterrents to keep elephants out of crops. Here, we present data on the effectiveness of a novel beehive fence deployed in a Turkana community of 62 communally run farms in Kenya. Specifically, 1700 m of beehive fences semi-surrounded the outer boundaries of seventeen farms, and we compared elephant farm invasion events with these and to seventeen neighbouring farms whose boundaries were ‘protected’ only by thorn bush barriers. We present data from 45 farm invasions, or attempted invasions, recorded over 2 years. Thirteen groups of elephants approached the beehive fences and turned away. Of the 32 successful farm invasions, only one bull elephant broke through the beehive fences. These results demonstrate that beehive fences are more effective than thorn bush barriers at deterring elephants and may have a role to play in alleviating farmer‐elephant conflict. Additionally, the harvesting of 106 kg of honey during the trial period suggests that beehive fences may also improve crop production and enhance rural livelihoods through honey sales.

A questionnaire-based evaluation of the veterinary cordon fence separating wildlife and livestock along the boundary of the Kruger National Park, South Africa

Veterinary cordon fences are used in Southern Africa to separate wildlife from domestic animals in order to prevent transmission of infectious diseases. Such fences are a control method recognized by the World Organization for Animal Health (OIE) for establishing disease-free zones in beef exporting countries. However, few studies have evaluated the ecological impact of these physical barriers or their effectiveness at a multispecies level. We examined the permeability of one such barrier, along 357 km of the western and southern boundary of the Kruger National Park (KNP) during 2007. Information was gathered using a semi-structured questionnaire implemented among 32 teams of fence maintenance workers. Data were analyzed to identify (a) the main causes of fence damage, (b) the seasonality, location and duration of fence repairs, (c) high permeability areas for elephant ( Loxodonta africana), kudu ( Tragelaphus strepsiceros), impala ( Aepyceros melampus), buffalo ( Syncerus caffer) and warthog ( Phacochoerus africanus), and (d) the influence of fence electrification, rivers and elephant damage on the frequency of observation of wildlife species outside the KNP estimated during the year. Human and elephant damage were the most common reasons for fence repairs. Elephant and buffalo were the most and least common large mammal species reported observed outside the KNP (1076 and 162 reports/year), respectively. Cattle incursions into the KNP were also reported in 44% of the fence sections. Electrification of the fence was an important factor explaining differences in estimated wildlife species observations outside the KNP during the year. Correlations between estimations of observed species suggested that fence gaps created by elephants might be used by the other wildlife species. Estimated annual counts of kudu, impala and buffalo, but not warthog, were found to correlate with elephant observations. Negative binomial regression models were developed to explore the relationships between observed estimations of different wildlife species outside the KNP the fence, electrification of fence sections and the presence of watercourses, suggesting that kudu, impala and buffalo could use elephant induced fence damage to leave the KNP. The questionnaire was able to evaluate fence integrity and identify sections where integrity was sub-optimal for separating wildlife from domestic livestock species. If combined with more quantitative methods and applied on a routine basis, it could provide an efficient and cost-effective method for monitoring the effectiveness of physical barriers to contain wildlife within protected areas such as is the case with veterinary cordon fences in Southern Africa.

Mammalian Hazards at Small Airports in Indiana: Impact of Perimeter Fencing

Fences are used at many airports and small airfields to exclude wildlife from entering critical areas. However, not all fences exclude hazardous mammals reliably, and effective fences can be too expensive for small airports to purchase and maintain. In this study, we evaluated fencing at 10 small airports in Indiana and documented the presence and relative abundance of wildlife within airport boundaries using remote cameras and spotlight surveys. Only 4 airports were completely fenced, and four were <50% fenced. All airports had openings in their fence lines that would allow hazardous wildlife access to the airfields. We encountered either white-tailed deer (Odocoileus virginianus) or coyotes (Canis latrans) at nine of the airports with remote cameras and during spotlight surveys. There were fewer coyotes and white-tailed deer encountered during spotlight surveys at completely-fenced airports ( = 0.40 individuals/km across 8 surveys; SE = 0.24) than were encountered at airports that were not completely fenced ( = 6.15; SE = 2.32; P = 0.032). Our study suggests that complete enclosure of airfields and regular fence maintenance is vital for effective wildlifestrike management at small airports.

Agricultural expansion within Kimana electric fences and implications for natural resource conservation around Amboseli National Park, Kenya

Fencing has become a key strategy in mitigating human–wildlife conflicts and promoting agricultural production in Kenya. However, it can have negative long-term consequences for wildlife conservation as well as human development, especially if the fence is poorly maintained. Such is the case of the Kimana and Namelok fences in the Kimana Group Ranch. This study assessed the influence of fences on agricultural expansion, environmental and wildlife conservation. In both fences, irrigated agriculture was a dominant land use and occurred along riverbanks, causing drying downstream. Most farmers in both fences were noticing a decline in water quantity and time of access to it, as well as increasing human–wildlife conflicts. Wildlife sightings within both fences provided evidence that the inadequate fence maintenance allows wildlife to freely access the fenced areas. Both wildlife and humans were blamed for fence deterioration in both fences. Irrigated agriculture inside both fences is expanding at an unmanageable rate. While the fences have spurred socio-economic activities in the area, they are not only ineffective in reducing human–wildlife conflicts but have given rise to other critical conflicts. Fencing appears to be a short-term remedy for human–wildlife conflicts and it is crucial to explore other mitigation strategies.

Some production outcomes when management practices and deer behaviour interact

There are three key times during the year when deer management interacts with behavioural needs to influence pr oductivity. At calving time , average neonatal losses are 10-12%. The most common causes of perinatal mortality are dystocia, starvation and misadventure. Observational studies have shown that loss of contact between the hind and calf, calf beating by hinds and entanglement of calves in fences are consequences of calving environments with high stocking densities, that lack vegetative or topographical cover, allow disturbance by humans, or provide unfamiliar social or environmental conditions. Weaning is a second critical production phase when management affects pr oductivity. Early post-weaning growth rates in calves weaned before the rut are not influenced readily by feed quality. Reducing weaning stress using management tools such as confining the calves indoors for a few days, or adding some unrelated hinds to the weaned group can improve weight gains at this time. Another option is to delay weaning until the calves are older. Mating time is a third critical period dur ing which management needs to take behavioural needs into account. Appr opriate stag-hind ratios and management at mating that increase the chances of conception have been identified. Suitable social conditions at mating differ between yearling and adult hinds. Fence line pacing is frequently observed at the above three critical times and can occur at other times of the year in response to unfavourable conditions. Pacing consumes energy and contributes to erosion and fence maintenance requirements. Attention to the behavioural needs of deer can help improve performance through appropriate management systems. Keywords: behaviour, calving, fence pacing, management, mating, weaning