Female Silhouettes Research Articles

Bias related to overweight and obesity among French psychiatrists: Results of a national survey

BackgroundAccording to people with a higher weight, physicians are the second most stigmatizing group related to excess weight. As a result of these weight-related biases, the therapeutic relationship with the patient and the quality of care would be negatively affected. In addition, this stigma could negatively impact the clinical practice related to higher weight and avoidance of care. ObjectivesThe objective of this study was to assess the stigma of overweight and obesity among psychiatric residents and psychiatrists in France. Specifically, the study aimed to assess factors that may influence weight-related bias among psychiatrists, to explore the relevance of visual assessment of body mass index, and to determine how they this feature is integrated into their practice. MethodAn online questionnaire including sociodemographic items, the Fat Phobia Scale, the Beliefs About Obese Persons Scale, the Body Shape Scales, and questions about their clinical practice was distributed via national professional mailing lists and social networks. ResultsThe survey was answered by 271 seniors or residents in psychiatry. The results indicated a moderate level of weight-related bias among psychiatrists as assessed by the Fat Phobia Scale which was higher in residents than in senior psychiatrists. Over a third of the respondents had no material to assess their patient's weight, and two thirds did not systematically assess overweight or obesity. Finally, the results demonstrate that psychiatrists failed to accurately evaluate overweight or obesity based on male or female silhouettes. ConclusionIt appears that measures should be taken to raise awareness among psychiatrists of the stigmatization of individuals living with a higher weight, as well as to enhance the quality of weight gain care in psychiatry.

The Influence of the Hourglass Form of the Neck on Perceptions of Frontal Esthetics.

The purpose of this investigation was to evaluate the effect of the neck concavity angle (NCA) on different occupational groups' perceptions of frontal esthetics. An online survey was developed using Google Forms and sent to the observers through WhatsApp. Male and female frontal silhouettes were created, and NCAs that comprise the hourglass form of the neck were altered in 5 degrees increments from 120 degrees to 170 degrees. Observers were asked to score the images using 0 to 10 numerical rating scale. In all, 279 observers (97 orthodontists, 92 oral-maxillofacial surgeons, and 90 laypeople) participated in this study. For the male and female silhouettes, an NCA of 145 degrees was perceived as the most esthetic, while an NCA of 170 degrees was perceived as the least esthetic by all groups. Generally, an NCA greater than 145 degrees was perceived as less esthetic than an NCA smaller than 145 degrees. There was no significant difference between the scores of the observer groups for the silhouettes except for the female silhouettes with an NCA of 125 degrees or 150 degrees and the male silhouettes with an NCA of 145 degrees or 150 degrees. For both the female and male silhouettes, the further the NCA increased or decreased from 145 degrees, the less esthetic it was perceived to be. A significant increase in NCA was perceived as less esthetic than a significant decrease. The range of NCAs perceived as esthetic varied between 120 degrees and 145 degrees for women and between 130 degrees and 150 degrees for men. These ranges of variability of NCA may provide clinicians with useful information for orthognathic surgical planning.

What Is the Perception of an Esthetic Lower Facial Third Profile in the Korean Layperson Population?

The purpose of this study is to investigate whether there were differences in perception of facial profile esthetics at the upper lip, gnathic, and genial levels according to observer gender and age in the Korean layperson population. Ten male (M1 to M10) and 10 female (F1 to F10) silhouettes with differing facial profiles at the level of the upper lip, mandibular, and chin were created from a male and female facial profile deemed well-balanced and orthognathic by reviewer consensus. These silhouettes were presented to 288 participants who were asked to rank the 5 most attractive male and female profiles. The participants were composed of 144 males and 144 females divided into 4 age groups: group I (under 20years), group II (20 to 39years), group III (40 to 59years), and group IV (over 60years). The most preferred profile and observer scores were investigated and calculated. Descriptive analysis, χ2 test, and analysis of variance were used for statistical analysis according to age and gender. The most preferred male and female silhouettes were orthognathic profiles. There was no significant difference according to gender when rating male (P=.281) and female (P=.442) silhouettes. No statistically significant difference was observed even when analyzed according to age groups. Although the difference in observer scores among each ranking showed a statistical difference according to age groups, the overall rankings showed a similar pattern both in male and female silhouettes. In the same age group, no difference in rank scores according to gender was observed. Severe concave profiles were found to have the lowest rank. An orthognathic profile was rated as the most desirable in the Korean layperson population, with few differences in perception of esthetic facial profile according to age and gender.

What is normal body weight? Perceptions around "average" and "healthy" body weight among adolescents in Indiana.

Biological normalcy is a framework that investigates relationship(s) between statistical norms and normative views/beliefs around particular traits. This study assessed the relationships between perceptions of average body weight, healthy body weight, and weight status among adolescents. Adolescents recruited in southcentral Indiana, United States (n=123) completed online questionnaires for demographics and body weight perceptions. Silhouettes from the Stunkard Figure Rating Scale measured perceived weight status, perceived average body weight, and perceived healthy body weight. Height and weight were measured to calculate body mass index-for-age percentiles. A subsample (n=11) provided descriptions of "average," "healthy," and "normal" bodies during semi-structured interviews. As perceived average body weight increased, selections of "healthy" silhouettes shifted downward, with smaller female silhouettes being marked healthy more often and larger male silhouettes being marked healthy less often. Additionally, perceived weight status was positively associated with perceptions around average body weight and lowest body weight perceived to be healthy for female and male silhouettes. Qualitative data demonstrated significant overlap in adolescents' descriptions of "average," "healthy," and "normal" bodies as well as dual meanings for the term "normal" in adolescents' views of body weight. Perceived weight status appears to play a role in adolescents' conceptualizations of average and healthy body weight. Additionally, Qualitative and quantitative data indicated that perceived body weight norms were associated with normative perceptions around what healthy bodies look like. This study demonstrates relationships between statistical norms and normative views around body weight, underscoring the duality in how body weight is understood to be "normal" among adolescents.

Psychometric properties of a Silhouette Rating Scale assessing current and ideal body size and body dissatisfaction in adults

PurposeThe study aims at validating a new pictorial tool, the Silhouette Rating Scale (SRS). It consists of a series of nine female or male silhouettes. It was created to assess current and ideal body size evaluation, and body dissatisfaction. Our aims were to test the concurrent, convergent and discriminant validity of the scale, evaluating possible gender differences.MethodA first sample of 754 young adults (age M = 26.10 ± 8.50, males N = 218) and a second sample of 210 young adults (age M = 21.19 ± 3.22, males = 43) completed the SRS, and other self-report measures assessing body size evaluation, disordered eating, body satisfaction, depression, emotion regulation and insomnia.ResultsStatistical analyses performed on the first sample largely support the concurrent validity of the scale. Results obtained from the second sample confirm its convergent validity, showing strong correlations with the Contour Drawing Rating Scale. In addition, the correlations performed between the three responses of the SRS and other measures of eating disorders, depression, insomnia and emotion regulation indicated a good discriminant validity, though some of the variables measured seem to be significantly correlated.ConclusionsThe SRS is a reliable and valid tool for assessing current body size, body ideal and body dissatisfaction as compared to other widely used scales. It guarantees the universality of use thanks to the absence of details related to ethnicity or culture and at the same time, maintaining a right level of realism. Future studies will evaluate test–retest validity and its potential within clinical populations.Leve of evidenceV, descriptive cross sectional study

Body norms and normative bodies in Highland Guatemala.

The concept of bionormalcy highlights the potential tensions between bodies defined clinically as normal or healthy, bodies that are normative (frequent) within a population, and bodies defined within a given social context as abnormal or devalued. Theories of resource scarcity predict preferences for larger bodies should deviate from what is biologically normative (i.e., most frequent) or clinically defined as healthy. Using the case of adult women in a Guatemalan community with chronically low food security, we test how food scarcity shapes individual views of smaller, larger, and clinically categorized normal bodies. Participants were 102 women from a community in the Central Highlands of Guatemala. Using the Stunkard figure scale and a word elicitation task, participants attributed positive and negative characteristics to male and female silhouettes clinically defined as underweight, normal, overweight, mildly obese, and obese. Mixed-effects models were used to compare attribution scores for figures relative to the clinically normal silhouette. Silhouettes deviating from the clinically defined normal BMI category on both sides are stigmatized to varying degrees. Food insecurity exacerbates the degree of stigma, while also relatively preferencing overweight bodies. In this pilot study, women exhibit a preference for body sizes that fall within the clinical normal and overweight categories and stigmatize bodies outside this range, but in distinct ways. We suggest the attachment of stigma to small and large bodies are not mirror processes, and require more detailed testing to untangle the likely complex ecological and social explanations.

A behavior experiment study: Information integration in sensory perception of female suit silhouettes

Sensory evaluation of garment silhouettes is comprehensive, and it is an important index in evaluating the sense of clothes. In this paper, a behavior experiment was used to collect data instead of questionnaire in traditional research in garment sensory perception. The results show the main effect of silhouette element and interaction effects between elements on sensory perception were quite different. The information integration in garment silhouette sensory perception was differed in different emotional. The integration model and mathematical model constructed in this paper can provide a basis for integrating other perception information such as color and hand feeling in sensory evaluation of garment. Method in the paper will provide a creative idea for studying garment featured-pattern research in computer vision.

Body Image Satisfaction, Eating Attitudes and Perceptions of Female Body Silhouettes in Rural South African Adolescents

This study aims to examine the associations between BMI, disordered eating attitude, body dissatisfaction in female adolescents, and descriptive attributes assigned to silhouettes of varying sizes in male and female adolescents, aged 11 to 15, in rural South Africa. Height and weight were measured to determine BMI. Age and sex-specific cut-offs for underweight and overweight/obesity were determined using the International Obesity Task Force cut-offs. Body image satisfaction using Feel-Ideal Discrepancy (FID) scores, Eating Attitudes Test-26 (EAT-26), and perceptual female silhouettes were collected through self-administered questionnaires in 385 adolescents from the Agincourt Health and Socio-Demographic Surveillance System (HSDSS). Participants self-reported their Tanner pubertal stage and were classified as early pubertal (< = Tanner stage 2), and mid to post pubertal (Tanner stage > 2). Mid to post pubertal boys and girls were significantly heavier, taller, and had higher BMI values than their early pubertal counterparts (all p<0.001). The prevalence of overweight and obesity was higher in the girls than the boys in both pubertal stages. The majority (83.5%) of the girls demonstrated body dissatisfaction (a desire to be thinner or fatter). The girls who wanted to be fatter had a significantly higher BMI than the girls who wanted to be thinner (p<0.001). There were no differences in EAT-26 scores between pubertal groups, within the same sex, and between boys and girls within the two pubertal groups. The majority of the boys and the girls in both pubertal groups perceived the underweight silhouettes to be “unhappy” and “weak” and the majority of girls in both pubertal groups perceived the normal silhouettes to be the “best”. These findings suggest a need for policy intervention that will address a healthy body size among South African adolescents.

Relationship Between Perceived Body Image and Recorded Body Mass Index Among Kuwaiti Female University Students

The associations between body image and attitudes toward obesity and thinness and their associations with measured body mass index (BMI) among female students of Kuwait University (n = 137) was examined in 2008. The body image perceptions were assessed using nine female silhouettes figures. The difference between current perceived body image (PBI) and ideal body image (IBI) was used as a measure of body image dissatisfaction (BID). Students tended to have a bigger PBI and smaller IBI than would be expected from their BMI category, leading to high levels of BID in each BMI category. PBI, IBI, BID, RBI were highly correlated with each other, and BMI was significantly correlated with each of them. The coefficients of these associations were not significantly altered in multiple regression analysis by the addition of potential confounding variables, such as age, marital status, physical activity, dieting behavior, parental education, and family size. These results suggest that PBI and a desire to be thinner were strongly related to BID and that thinness is becoming more desired in Kuwaiti society than the plump body image of the past.

Height preferences in humans may not be universal: Evidence from the Datoga people of Tanzania

Many studies in Western societies have shown that women prefer relatively taller men as potential partners, whereas men prefer women who are slightly shorter than themselves. Here, we discuss possible limitations of previous results within the context of the stimuli used (i.e., differences in the perceived body size of female silhouettes). Our results show that, at least in a Polish sample (N=231), modified stimuli did not essentially change the observed male-taller preferences. In contrast, we report height preferences in a traditional ethnic group, the Datoga people from Tanzania (N=107), in which men and women preferred extreme sexual dimorphism in stature (SDS) sets (i.e., men and women chose women much taller or much shorter than themselves). Thus, our data do not accord with the suggestion of a universal preference for taller men, but rather suggests that height preferences may be influenced by cultural, environmental, and ecological conditions.

Mere visual experience impacts preference for body shape: evidence from male competitive swimmers

Theoretical and empirical studies suggest that phenotypic averageness is a sign of an individual's high biological quality. The averageness should therefore be preferred in mates. A condition for such preference is the knowledge of average phenotype in the population. It is envisaged that an individual develops a neural template of typical phenotype on the basis of perceptual experience with images of conspecifics, and the template is then used in attractiveness assessments of potential partners. Regrettably, studies supporting this view are lacking. In the present study, adult male competitive swimmers and men who did not partake in swimming assessed the attractiveness of female silhouettes with proportions typical for swimmers or non-swimmers. Because swimmers see other swimmers relatively frequently, we hypothesize that they prefer swimmer-like female silhouettes more strongly than non-swimmers do. The analysis supports this hypothesis, suggesting that mere visual experience shapes a neural template of a silhouette, which subsequently serves as a reference for attractiveness evaluations.

Attractiveness of Leg Length: Report From 27 Nations

The leg-to-body ratio (LBR) is a morphological index that has been shown to influence a person’s attractiveness. In our research, 3,103 participants from 27 nations rated the physical attractiveness of seven male and seven female silhouettes varying in LBR. We found that male and female silhouettes with short and excessively long legs were perceived as less attractive across all nations. Hence, the LBR may significantly influence perceptions of physical attractiveness across nations.

Gender aftereffects in the perception of silhouetted face profiles

Recent studies have shown figural aftereffects in the perception of faces, including gender, race, and identity aftereffects (e.g., Leopold et al., 2001; Webster et al., 2004; Witthoft & Winawer, 2005). In such studies, prolonged exposure to a face with a particular characteristic (e.g., female) temporarily biases subsequent perception of faces in the opposite direction in face-space (e.g., male). Here we report such adaptation in a brief, implicit adaptation paradigm using parameterized silhouetted face profiles that rely on 18 landmark points to specify each face (Davidenko, 2004). We constructed a set of 8 male and 8 female face silhouettes, and a gender-neutral silhouette produced by averaging 20 male and 20 female silhouettes. Subjects were unaware that there were separate adaptation and test conditions; they simply rated each of 9 silhouettes on one of four dimensions: age, race, attractiveness, or gender. The first 8 silhouettes were either all female (Condition 1) or all male (Condition 2), and the 9th face was gender-neutral. Gender was only rated on the 9th face. We report a dramatic gender aftereffect with face silhouettes: 97% of subjects in Condition 1 (57 of 59) labeled the neutral silhouette as male, compared to 39% in Condition 2 (24 of 62). To our knowledge, this is the first report of face adaptation using profiles. In addition, these effects further validate Davidenko's silhouette face-space.

The development of preferences for specific body shapes

Research with adults has shown a preference for average‐weight female figures with waist‐to‐hip ratios (WHR) of 0.7, and average weight male figures with waist‐to‐hip ratios of 0.9. This study investigated the development of preferences for WHR sizes as well as preferences for specific body weights. Five‐hundred eleven children ranging in age from 6 to 17 were presented with drawings of 12 male and 12 female silhouettes varying in weight and WHR and asked to select one they thought looked the nicest or most attractive. The youngest children showed preferences for the underweight figures, changing to consistent preferences for the average weight figures in the teenage years. The developmental curves for waist‐to‐hip ratio preferences were linear, changing gradually over time to become more adult‐like. Potential developmental models for the development of preferences for specific body shapes are considered in relation to these data.

Body dissatisfaction in female restrained eaters depends on food deprivation

This study investigated the effects of food deprivation on the body image in female restrained and unrestrained eaters. Twenty female restrained eaters and 20 female unrestrained eaters were asked to identify their current and their ideal body shape by choosing them from a sample of nine female silhouettes. This test was conducted under three deprivational conditions: hungry, thirsty and non-deprived (neither hungry nor thirsty). The discrepancy between the current and the ideal body shape—termed as body dissatisfaction—did not differ significantly between restrained and unrestrained eaters when thirsty or satiated. Under hunger, however, the restrained eaters scored a significantly larger discrepancy between their current and ideal body shape than the unrestrained eaters. The data suggest that women with restrained eating behavior feel a body dissatisfaction when being hungry.

Gender Stereotyping in Portuguese Children Living in Portugal and Abroad: Effects of Migration, Age, and Gender

Williams and Best’s (1990) study of the development of sex stereotype knowledge among young children in 24 countries was extended to Portuguese subjects living in Portugal and abroad. Subjects were 720 children (aged 8-11 years), with each age group evenly divided by gender, and each age/gender group evenly divided into three places of residence: urban and rural areas in Portugal, and in France. Subjects were administered the Sex Stereotype Measure II (SSM II) in which children select between male and female silhouettes as the person described in brief stories containing highly sex-typed psychological characteristics (aggressive, emotional, etc.). The results of the study indicated an increase in sex stereotype knowledge from 8 to 11 years, a greater knowledge of the migrants’ children in France than of the children living in urban and rural areas in Portugal, and a greater knowledge of female stereotype traits than male stereotype traits.

They all look alike, but so do we … sometimes: Perceptions of in‐group and out‐group homogeneity as a function of sex and context

The impact of gender on perceptions of group homogeneity was assessed using a memory paradigm. In the main experimental conditions, male and female subjects were presented with 12 pairs of photographs and gendered silhouettes. The photographs portrayed a series of environments (e.g. a kitchen) in public settings (e.g. a restaurant) and in domestic ones (e.g. at home). The connection of settings and gender of silhouettes varied across subjects. In control conditions, all silhouettes were of the same sex or were geometrical forms (triangles and squares). The subjects memorized the pairs of photographs and targets, and then had to reconstruct them. The experiment addressed three hypotheses. The categorization effect: within‐category errors would exceed between‐category errors, especially when gender was used as a categorization criterion. The out‐group homogeneity effect: within‐category errors concerning the out‐group would be greater than those concerning the in‐group. The social status effect: men would display more out‐group homogeneity than women. Results provided evidence for the categorization and the out‐group homogeneity hypotheses. They also supported to some extent the social status hypothesis. Different styles of processing of information were suggested by men's and women's performances. Men consistently displayed the out‐group homogeneity bias, whereas women did not. Women took into account the kind of setting: they made more errors when matching the male or the female silhouettes to the domestic settings (the stereotypical in‐group settings) than when matching these silhouettes to the public settings (the stereotypical out‐group settings). Finally, sex‐typing measures about the self were related to the subjects' behavioural performances, especially for women.

Portuguese Children's Knowledge of Sex Stereotypes

Williams and Best's (1982) study of the development of sex-stereotype knowledge among young children in 24 countries was extended to Portugal. Subjects were 444 children (5-, 8-, and 11-year-olds), with each age group evenly divided by gender, and each age/gender group evenly divided into three levels of socioeconomic status (SES). Subjects were administered the Sex Stereotype Measure II (SSM II) in which children select between male and female silhouettes as the person described in brief stories containing highly sex-typed psychological characteristics (aggressive, emotional, etc.). The results of the study indicated a regular increase in sex-stereotype knowledge across the age range studied, an increase in sex-stereotype knowledge with increasing SES, a greater knowledge of female stereotype traits than male stereotype traits, and tendencies for the effects of age and SES to be more dramatic for male than for female stereotype items. Results were compared with previous findings in Brazil and other Latin American countries, and with the findings from Williams and Best's 24-country study.

Traits Associated with Men and Women

The association of certain psychological traits with men and others with women was studied among 4285- and 8-year-old children in 5 European countries. Subjects were read 32 stories, each representing a particular trait (e.g., aggressive, emotional), and following each story they selected between male and female silhouettes as being "the person the story is about." The findings indicated substantial cross-national similarity in the traits ascribed to men and women. Some evidence of differences between countries was found, with the children's responses in Germany and France being relatively most discrepant. The results were discussed in relation to the findings from studies of adults in European countries, and from studies of children and adults in English-speaking countries.

A TYPOLOGICAL ANALYSIS OF MALE PREFERENCES FOR FEMALE BODY TYPES

A multivariate analysis of the preference ratings of 96 male undergraduates for 105 pairs of nude female silhouettes differing in breast size, buttocks size, and leg size, suggested that there are at least five distinct heterosexual somatic preference orientations.