Female Reproductive Tract Infection Research Articles

Assessment of knowledge and behavioral risk factors of reproductive tract infections among married women of 15-49 years in rural areas of Haldwani block, Uttarakhand.

One of the most serious public health issues in India is reproductive tract infections (RTIs), which have a profound effect on the lives of men and women, as well as their families and communities. To describe the sociodemographic traits, assess women's RTI knowledge, and determine which behavioral risk factors are involved in female RTI. Using a 30-cluster sampling approach, a cross-sectional study design was employed to examine RTIs in 30 villages located in the Haldwani block of the district Nainital. It was shown that just 7.6% of women knew enough about RTIs. Among the 450 women surveyed, the percentage of RTI cases was significantly lower for those who used the barrier method during menstruation (7.7%), had more than three children (25.7%), had a trained person deliver their baby in a hospital (24.1%), used condoms as a family planning method (5.6%), used sanitary pads during menstruation (25.6%), and maintained good personal hygiene (22.4%). The study revealed that the participants' understanding of RTI was lacking.

Repurposing of non-steroidal anti-inflammatory drugs for combination therapies to combat multidrug-resistant S. aureus of bovine reproductive tract origin.

Multidrug-resistant bacteria have become the predominant etiology in bovine female reproductive tract infections and thus require effective treatment approaches. The main goal of this study was the molecular detection of mecA, blaZ, tetK, and aacA-aphD genes in Staphylococcus aureus (S. aureus) responsible for methicillin, beta-lactam, tetracycline, and aminoglycoside resistance respectively. Phylogenetic analysis was conducted to check the homology of staphylococcal genes with NCBI sequences. The in-vitro efficacy of non-steroidal anti-inflammatory drugs (NSAIDs) in combination therapies against MDR S. aureus was evaluated using well diffusion assay and checkerboard method. Vaginal swab samples (n = 384) collected from bovines suffering from endometritis, pyometra, and retained placenta were tested for S. aureus. Results showed a 17.96% overall prevalence. Both phenotypic and genotypic resistance was observed among S. aureus isolates with 50.72% and 37.68% isolates being confirmed as methicillin-resistant (MRSA), 36.23% and 18.84% isolates exhibiting beta-lactam, 40.58%, and 27.54% isolates showing tetracycline, and 33.33% and 36.23% isolates showing aminoglycosides resistance based on disc diffusion and gene confirmation, respectively. Phylogenetic analysis indicated homology with previously reported Pakistani isolates suggesting the possibility of MDR S. aureus transmission within and between animals. Synergy testing indicated that combinations of ceftriaxone-ketoprofen (153.77%), ceftriaxone-meloxicam (149.55%), amoxiclav-flunixin meglumine (106.06%), and oxytetracycline-flunixin meglumine (104.47%) showed synergy on well diffusion assay. Based on the fractional inhibitory concentration index by checkerboard method, oxytetracycline-meloxicam and gentamicin-ketoprofen combinations exhibited synergistic interaction. In conclusion, MDR S. aureus resistance was mitigated in-vitro through the combination of antibiotics (oxytetracycline, gentamicin) with NSAIDs (meloxicam, ketoprofen) that could be used to create therapeutic strategies for bovine reproductive issues.

Role of Toll-Like Receptors in Common Infectious Diseases of the Female Lower Genital Tract.

The female reproductive tract consists of the vagina, cervix, uterus, and fallopian tubes. In particular, the lower region of the reproductive tract, which contains the vagina and cervix, is often attacked by various pathogenic microorganisms such as bacteria, fungi, and viruses. The immune response of the female lower genital tract is the first line of defense against pathogenic microorganisms. The toll-like receptors (TLRs), a critical pattern recognition receptor, are essential for fighting infections in the female lower genital tract. Here we give an overview of the current research on TLR expression in the female lower genital tract and review the role of TLRs and their signaling pathways in the identification of numerous pathogens in female lower genital tract infections. Our review will contribute to a deeper understanding of the connection between TLRs and the pathological mechanisms of female lower reproductive tract infections, serving as a reference for both fundamental research and preventative strategies for these diseases.

The Application of Nanoparticle-Based Imaging and Phototherapy for Female Reproductive Organs Diseases.

Various female reproductive disorders affect millions of women worldwide and bring many troubles to women's daily life. Let alone, gynecological cancer (such as ovarian cancer and cervical cancer) is a severe threat to most women's lives. Endometriosis, pelvic inflammatory disease, and other chronic diseases-induced pain have significantly harmed women's physical and mental health. Despite recent advances in the female reproductive field, the existing challenges are still enormous such as personalization of disease, difficulty in diagnosing early cancers, antibiotic resistance in infectious diseases, etc. To confront such challenges, nanoparticle-based imaging tools and phototherapies that offer minimally invasive detection and treatment of reproductive tract-associated pathologies are indispensable and innovative. Of late, several clinical trials have also been conducted using nanoparticles for the early detection of female reproductive tract infections and cancers, targeted drug delivery, and cellular therapeutics. However, these nanoparticle trials are still nascent due to the body's delicate and complex female reproductive system. The present review comprehensively focuses on emerging nanoparticle-based imaging and phototherapies applications, which hold enormous promise for improved early diagnosis and effective treatments of various female reproductive organ diseases.

The role of immune cells in Chlamydiaspread to the gastrointestinal tract following reproductive tract infection

Abstract Chlamydia trachomatisis the main cause of sexually transmitted disease and preventable blindness worldwide. In both animals and humans, Chlamydiaspp. infect not only the female reproductive tract (FRT), but also the gastrointestinal tract (GIT), where it persists for long periods, without causing obvious pathology. In the murine model, following FRT infection, Chlamydiaspreads to the GIT in stages and relies on carriage by host cells. After initial infection of epithelial cells in the FRT, lamina propria DCs internalize Chlamydia, which triggers their migration (and thus Chlamydiacarriage) to the FRT-draining iliac lymph nodes. In the ILNs, Chlamydiainfects other cells, which, then guided by the sphingosine 1-phosphate (S1P) gradient, enter the circulation, and carry Chlamydiato the spleen and the GIT. Selective depletion of either CD8 T cells, or monocytes/macrophages significantly lowers Chlamydiaburden in the spleen and the GIT. In contrast, depletion of CD4 T cells significantly increases Chlamydiaburden in the iliac lymph nodes and the GIT. While it takes about one week for FRT to GIT Chlamydiaspread, ceca of CD4 depleted mice become positive for Chlamydiaby day 3 of infection. It remains to be determined whether T cells and monocytes/macrophages become infected and actively transport Chlamydiato the GIT, or simply limit (or allow) its growth at different stages of infection and thus affect Chlamydiaspread. Delineating the interactions of Chlamydiawith specific host cells in vivoand identifying the cells and chemokines that mediate Chlamydiaspread will shed light on Chlamydiapathogenesis, and on regulation of host cell migration during Chlamydiainfection. Supported by grant from NIH (1 R21 AI159743-01)

Detection of HPV Infection and the Current Status of Vaccine Research: A Review

Objectives: Purpose of this narrative review is to comprehensively summarize and compare the methods of human papilloma viruses (HPV) detection to provide a reference for clinical selection. And it also concludes the research progress of preventive HPV vaccines and therapeutic HPV vaccines to provide new ideas for the future development of HPV vaccines. Mechanism: A comprehensive search of published relevant articles was conducted. Multiple database were searched including PubMed, SCOPUS, and Ovid. Searches included the key terms: human papilloma viruses (HPV), HPV infection, epidemiology, HPV vaccine, cervical cancer (CC) screening, detection technology. Findings in Brief: HPV is a sexually transmitted virus and also a common cause of female reproductive tract infections. HPV has been reported to be associated with approximately 5% of human cancers worldwide, among which high-risk HPV (HR-HPV) infection is the most closely related to cervical cancer. The advantages of using HPV testing for cervical cancer screening are the high long-term negative predictive value (NPV), the high sensitivity (90–95%) for cervical intraepithelial neoplasia (CIN) 2 or 3, and the significant reduction in CIN2/3 and cancer in test-negative women over long term follow-up. The current detection of HPV infection is mainly for HPV DNA, RNA and oncoprotein, and vrious methods have their own features. Currently, there is no treatment for an HPV infection, so prevention is the key to cancer reduction. HPV vaccine is an important means to reduce the incidence rate of HPV infection and HPV related cervical cancer. Conclusions: With the development of assay technology, assays with low cost, high versatility and operability will be needed in the future. The HPV vaccine, as a primary prevention measure for cervical cancer, has achieved significant results in preventing HPV infection and reducing the incidence of reproductive tract diseases. In the future, it is expected that the HPV vaccine will make significant breakthroughs in the treatment of current HPV infections and cervical cancer.

Hookworm infection associates with a vaginal Type 1/Type 2 immune signature and increased HPV load.

Helminth infection-driven changes to immunity in the female reproductive tract (FRT) is an immune axis that is currently understudied but can have major implications for the control of FRT infections. Here we address how human hookworm infection associates with vaginal immune profile and risk of Human papillomavirus (HPV) infection. Stool, blood, cervical swabs and vaginal flushes were collected from women from the Central region of Togo to screen for hookworms (Ancylostoma duodenale) and high carcinogenic risk HPV types, via Kato Katz and PCR, respectively. Cytokine, chemokine and immunoglobulin levels were analysed in cervicovaginal lavages and plasma samples. A pronounced mixed Type 1/Type 2 immune response was detected in the vaginal fluids of women with hookworm infection and this immune signature was a notable feature in hookworm-HPV co-infected women. Moreover, hookworm infection is positively associated with increased risk and load of HPV infection. These findings highlight helminth infection as a significant risk factor for acquiring a sexually transmitted viral infection and potentially raising the risk of subsequent pathology.

Effectiveness of an Online Educational Program about Vaginitis ​in Improving Knowledge among College Female Students in Jordan

Background: Female reproductive tract infection including vaginitis is considered as one of the most public-health issues and is known as a silent epidemic that might affect adolescents. Educational health programs are very effective in improving adolescent knowledge and practices regarding vaginitis and its preventive measures. Aim: The aim of this study was to assess the effectiveness of an online educational program in improving first-year college girls’ knowledge about vaginitis and its preventive measures in Jordan. Methods: A convenience sample consisting of 120 participants of first-year college female students were recruited and randomly assigned into intervention and control groups. A pretest was conducted for both groups and a post-test was conducted 2 weeks after the intervention for both groups. Findings: The results showed a significantly higher mean in the intervention group (M= 26.17; SD= 3.24) compared to the control group (M= 17.49; SD = 5.91) after conducting the educational program (p<0.00), which means that the educational program about vaginitis is effective in improving girls’ knowledge. Conclusions and Recommendations: Using short 2-hour lectures, using effective online and high-tech teaching methods and good follow-up would be very beneficial to improve the knowledge level among adolescents. Keywords: Vaginitis; Effectiveness of educational program; Adolescent girls; Knowledge; Preventive measures; First year college students.

Potential Role of Microbiota in the Prevention and Therapeutic Management of Infectious Diseases

A huge diversity of microbial species continues to live with the human beings that are collectively known as microbiota. Several environmental factors can impact the microbial imbalance in the intestine which can play a starring role in health and disease conditions in humans. In this review, we have described the role of human microbiota in the individual’s susceptibility to infectious diseases such as gastrointestinal, respiratory, and female reproductive tract infections. Here, we have discussed how the indigenous microbiota interacts with the host and the invader microorganisms including bacteria, fungi, and viruses, and can modify the outcome of infections. The complex mechanisms of colonization resistance mediated by the microbiota as a direct and indirect way to fight against the infectious agents have been highlighted. Moreover, the approaches for the modulation of human microbiota for the prevention or therapeutic management of infectious diseases have been discussed especially the potential therapies directly targeting the microbiota such as probiotics, prebiotics, as well as fecal microbiota transplantation. Further studies need to focus on the complex interactions between the host and microbial species which could be helpful for a better understanding of the hidden potential of gut microbiota in the physiology of the host and could provide novel therapeutic targets and approaches.

Effective clearance of Chlamydia from the murine female reproductive requires IL-12p40, but not T-bet driven Th1 responses

Abstract Protective immune responses to Chlamydia infection within the female reproductive tract (FRT) are incompletely understood. MHC class II-restricted IFN-γ+ Th1 responses are thought to be vital for bacterial clearance, but the Th1 master transcription factor T-bet had not yet been fully interrogated in primary infection. Here, we investigated T-bet and IFN-γ involvement in clearance of primary infection from the FRT. Surprisingly, IFN-γ producing CD4+ T cells from the FRT expressed low levels of T-bet, indicating that Chlamydia-specific CD4 T cells are not classical T-bet+ Th1 cells. Additionally, mice deficient in T-bet competently cleared infection with wild-type kinetics and showed significant skewing towards Th17 responses, indicating compensation pathways through alternate Th fates. On the other hand, IFN-γ-, and IFN-γR-deficient mice resolved much of FRT infection, but displayed systemic dissemination and 100% mortality. Thus, IFN-γ protects mice from fatal systemic disease, but classical T-bet+ Th1 cells are not required for primary clearance. In investigating alternative Th fates, RORγt mutant mice deficient for Th17 responses exhibited a short delay in clearance of FRT infection, demonstrating an unanticipated role for Th17 cells in Chlamydia clearance. However, mice deficient in the cytokine subunit IL-12p40 that promotes both Th1 and Th17 cells displayed a prolonged delay in FRT clearance despite CD4 T cells retaining the capacity for IFN-γ production. In summary, the type 1 cytokine IFN-γ plays an essential role in systemic control of Chlamydia, while clearance of primary infection within the FRT is largely dependent on an IL-12p40 driven mechanism that does not require T-bet or classical IFN-γ producing Th1 cells. Supported by grants from NIH (RO1 A1103422, T32 AI060555)

TGF-β signaling is important for female reproductive tract resident memory CD8 T cell development

Abstract Tissue-resident memory T cells (TRM) patrol non-lymphoid barrier tissues and provide rapid protection against reinvading pathogens. While TRM formation in several barrier mucosal tissues including intestine and respiratory tract has been investigated, factors that control TRM establishment in the female reproductive tract (FRT) remain unclear. Here we established a model of local FRT infection, characterized CD8 TRM development and probed the role of cytokine TGF-β in TRM formation. We adopted a mouse model of intravaginal lymphocytic choriomeningitis virus (LCMV) infection that generated robust local CD8 T cell response in both the lower FRT (cervix, vagina) and upper FRT (ovaries and uterine horn). Upon viral clearance, CD8 T cells in the tissue gradually adopted mature TRM phenotype. Parabiosis confirmed most antiviral T cells in the FRT were truly resident. There were marked differences in the phenotypes of TRM in upper and lower FRT with CD103+ epithelial TRM predominating the lower FRT mucosa. Longitudinal analysis revealed TRM in both compartments undergoes attrition. The cytokine TGF-β has been implicated in TRM development in number of barrier and visceral organs. Using TGF-β RII deficient transgenic CD8 T cells, we observed that lack of TGF-β receptor signaling impairs acquisition of CD103 and CD69 expression by FRT TRM. However, TGF-β RII deficient CD8 T cells showed elevated expression of effector molecules granzyme-B and interferon-gamma upon in vivo stimulation. Taken together, our data suggest a key role of TGF-β in the formation and function of virus specific TRM in the FRT. Further investigation will provide mechanistic insight on the nature of TGF-β signaling pathway impacting FRT TRM formation. Supported by NIH grants (P20GM121298 and P20GM109035) and Searle Scholars Foundation

Th1 cells are dispensable for primary clearance of Chlamydia from the female reproductive tract of mice.

Protective immune responses to Chlamydia infection within the female reproductive tract (FRT) are incompletely understood. MHC class II-restricted CD4 Th1 responses are believed to be vital for bacterial clearance due to their capacity to secrete IFN-γ, but an essential requirement for T-bet-expressing Th1 cells has yet to be demonstrated in the mouse model of Chlamydia infection. Here, we investigated the role of T-bet and IFN-γ in primary clearance of Chlamydia after FRT infection. Surprisingly, IFN-γ producing CD4 T cells from the FRT expressed low levels of T-bet throughout infection, suggesting that classical T-bet-expressing Th1 cells are inefficiently generated and therefore unlikely to participate in bacteria clearance. Furthermore, mice deficient in T-bet expression or with a CD4-specific T-bet deficiency cleared FRT infection similarly to wild-type controls. T-bet-deficient mice displayed significant skewing of FRT CD4 T cells towards Th17 responses, demonstrating that compensatory effector pathways are generated in the absence of Th1 cells. In marked contrast, IFN-γ-, and IFN-γR-deficient mice were able to reduce FRT bacterial burdens, but suffered systemic bacterial dissemination and 100% mortality. Together, these data demonstrate that IFN-γ signaling is essential to protect mice from fatal systemic disease, but that classical T-bet-expressing Th1 cells are non-essential for primary clearance within the FRT. Exploring the protective contribution of Th1 cells versus other CD4 effector lineages could provide important information for the generation of new Chlamydia vaccines.

A Vaginitis Classification Method Based on Multi-Spectral Image Feature Fusion.

Vaginitis is one of the commonly encountered diseases of female reproductive tract infections. The clinical diagnosis mainly relies on manual observation under a microscope. There has been some investigation on the classification of vaginitis diseases based on computer-aided diagnosis to reduce the workload of clinical laboratory staff. However, the studies only using RGB images limit the development of vaginitis diagnosis. Through multi-spectral technology, we propose a vaginitis classification algorithm based on multi-spectral image feature layer fusion. Compared with the traditional RGB image, our approach improves the classification accuracy by 11.39%, precision by 15.82%, and recall by 27.25%. Meanwhile, we prove that the level of influence of each spectrum on the disease is distinctive, and the subdivided spectral image is more conducive to the image analysis of vaginitis disease.

SCREENING OF INFERTILE FEMALES FOR LOWER GENITAL TRACT INFECTIONS

Introduction: Infertility has been known to cause serious social and emotional problems worldwide. Besides other causes of female infertility, the role of female reproductive tract infection is well recognized. Lower genital tract infection, be it symptomatic or asymptomatic, need to be diagnosed and treated properly. In view of this our study was done. Aim & Objectives: To evaluate the bacteriological profile of lower genital tract in infertile females. Methodology: It was a cross sectional type of study. After taking consent, three swabs (high vaginal swab, endocervical swab and swab from lateral vaginal wall) were taken from 100 infertile women. A questionnaire covering demographic data, menstrual history, medical history, history of infertility, etc. was completed for each of the participants. Isolation and identification of the isolates were done as per conventional techniques. Antibiotic Susceptibility Testing was done for the aerobic isolates as per CLSI guidelines. Results: In our study, 47% of females were asymptomatic and majority them showed positive microbiological growth. E.coli and S.aureus were the most common aerobic isolates and Prevotella spp. was the most common anaerobic isolate. Majority of the anaerobes were associated with bacterial vaginosis. Majority of our isolates were susceptible to Gentamicin. Conclusion: The absence of clinical symptoms does not rule out the possibility of an ongoing acute inflammatory state due infective agents. Hence, both asymptomatic and symptomatic females should be screened for lower genital tract infections as the consequences may lead to infertility.

Hookworm Infections and Sociodemographic Factors Associated With Female Reproductive Tract Infections in Rural Areas of the Central Region of Togo.

Female reproductive tract infections (FRTIs) have a huge impact on women’s health including their reproductive health in rural areas. Immunomodulation by helminth infections could influence the occurrence of FRTIs. This study aimed to investigate the association between FRTIs, hookworm infections, and sociodemographic factors in six rural areas of the central region of Togo. A semi-structured questionnaire was used to collect sociodemographical information, and parasitological assessments were used to diagnose helminth infections. Moreover, cytobacteriological examination of vaginal swabs was performed for the diagnosis of candidiasis and bacterial vaginosis (BV), and real-time PCR method was used to determine sexually transmitted infections (STIs). Finally, a logistic regression analysis was performed to assess the relationship and association of these factors to FRTIs. The prevalence of FRTIs was 82.3% including STIs (74.38%), BV (31.79%), and vulvovaginal candidiasis (9.85%). In detail, FRTIs were caused by bacteria such as Ureaplasma parvum (50%), Ureaplasma urealyticum (26.5%), and Mycoplasma hominis (17.5%) and viruses such us cytomegalovirus (5%) and human papilloma virus (HPV) (20%). No cases of Haemophilus ducreyi, Treponema pallidum, or varicella-zoster virus (VZV) were observed. Interestingly, women who had hookworm infections were at high risk of HPV. The use of condoms was a protective factor [adjusted odds ratio (aOR) = 0.23; 95% CI [0.11–0.51)], while the use of contraceptive methods was a risk factor [aOR = 2.49; 95% CI (1.19–5.19)] for STIs. The risk of BV was lower among participants who had more than four pregnancies [aOR = 0.27; 95% CI (0.11–0.65)]. Furthermore, women who had ever been paid for sexual intercourse were at high probability risk of vulvovaginal candidiasis [aOR = 16.92; 95% CI (1.46–196.48)]. This study highlighted risk factors associated with FRTIs, the control of which would help to reduce the incidence of these diseases. Health-care professionals could develop education and sensitization strategies based on these risk factors, and anti-hookworm treatment concepts may be taken into consideration to minimize the risk of HPV infections.

Effective clearance of Chlamydia from the female reproductive tract in the absence of T-bet+ Th1 cells

Abstract Protective immune responses to Chlamydia infection within the female reproductive tract (FRT) are incompletely understood. MHC class II-restricted CD4 Th1 responses are thought to be vital for bacterial clearance, due to their capacity to secrete IFN-γ, but Th1 responses as defined by the master transcription factor T-bet had not yet been fully interrogated in primary infection. Here, we investigated T-bet and IFN-γ involvement in primary infection clearance. We found that IFN-γ producing CD4+ T cells from the FRT exhibited surprisingly low levels of T-bet throughout primary infection, indicating low involvement of classical T-bet+ Th1 cells. Mice deficient for T-bet either globally or specifically in CD4+ cells both competently cleared infection along wild-type kinetics. T-bet-deficient mice also showed significant skewing towards Th17 responses, indicating potential compensation pathways through alternate Th fates. On the other hand, IFN-γ-, and IFN-γR-deficient mice resolved much of FRT infection, but experienced systemic dissemination and 100% mortality with an average median survival of approximately 4 weeks. Together, this indicates that while IFN-γ is important to protect mice from death, classical T-bet+ Th1 cells are ultimately not required for primary clearance. Studies are underway to examine which alternative CD4 T cell mechanisms contribute to bacterial clearance within the FRT. Supported by grants from NIH (RO1 A1103422, T32 AI060555)

DsRNA Virus Model Molecule and the Mechanism of PRRs and its Research Progress in Female Reproductive Tract Infections

Female animal genital tract opening on the body surface, prone to bacterial, viral, parasitic, and other pathogenic microorganism infections, leading to genital tract infectious diseases, such as endometritis, cervicitis, vaginitis, etc. Severe infection can lead to infertility, abortion, and even fetal death. Double-stranded RNA (dsRNA) is an important model molecule, which is widely present in the genome of viruses and generated in the process of virus replication. In mammals, dsRNA is considered to be an innate immune response signal for viral infection, which binds to the corresponding pattern-recognition receptors (PRRs) In vivo and then exerts biological functions. This review summarizes the signal transduction pathway induced by the binding of dsRNA model molecules to PRRs, research status of female genital tract infections and research progress of dsRNA in simulating viral infection in the female genital tract.

Vitamin D3 Controls TLR4- and TLR2-Mediated Inflammatory Responses of Endometrial Cells

Objectives: Vitamin D has potent immunoregulatory features and modulates innate and adaptive immune responses. There is a significant association between intrauterine infection-associated inflammatory responses and pregnancy complications such as abortion and preterm labor. Here, we investigated how 1,25 (OH)2 D3 could modulate inflammatory responses of endometrial cells. Design: This is an in vitro experimental study. Endometrial stromal cells (ESCs) and whole endometrial cells (WECs) were collected from 15 apparently normal women, and the immunomodulatory effects of 1,25 (OH)2 D3 on lipopolysaccharide (LPS)- or lipoteichoic acid (LTA)-treated ESCs and WECs were investigated. Participants/Materials, Setting, and Methods: Women with no history of abortion, infertility, endometriosis, or sign of vaginal infection were enrolled in this study. Endometrial samples were collected by gynecologists using a Pipelle pipette in the proliferative phase of the menstrual cycle. WECs and ESCs were collected and treated with either LPS or LTA. The levels of IL-6, IL-8, and TNF-α in culture supernatants were quantified using the ELISA technique. TLR2, TLR4, and MyD88 expressions were assessed by RT-qPCR. TLR4 expression at the protein level was studied by the Western blot technique. Results: 1,25 Dihydroxycholecalciferol (1,25 (OH)2 D3) significantly reduced TNF-α production in LPS-activated ESCs and TNF-α and IL-6 production by LTA-stimulated WECs. In contrast, 1,25 (OH)2 D3 pretreatment increased the production of IL-8 by LPS- and LTA-stimulated endometrial cells. 1,25 (OH)2 D3 pretreatment markedly reduced LPS-induced TLR4 protein expression by ESCs. LPS treatment of ESCs significantly induced MyD88 gene expression. This effect was reversed when these cells were pretreated with 1,25 (OH)2 D3 before stimulation with LPS. Limitations: Because of the small size of samples, doing experiments all together on some samples was not feasible. Confirmation of the results obtained here needs well-designed in vivo studies. Conclusions: 1,25 (OH)2 D3 is an immunomodulatory molecule essential for maintaining endometrial immune homeostasis by controlling potentially harmful inflammatory responses associated with female reproductive tract infections.

Female reproductive tract health: prevalence and risk factors associated with infections in Lomé. (Female reproductive tract infections in Lomé)

Female reproductive tract health: prevalence and risk factors associated with infections in Lomé. (Female reproductive tract infections in Lomé)

Effective clearance of Chlamydia from the female reproductive tract in the absence of T-bet+ Th1 cells

Abstract Protective immune responses to Chlamydia infection within the female reproductive tract (FRT) are incompletely understood. MHC class II-restricted CD4 Th1 responses are thought to be vital for bacterial clearance, due to their capacity to secrete IFN-γ. However, other studies suggest protective or pathogenic roles for additional CD4 T helper subsets. We used a variety of gene-deficient mice to re-examine bacterial clearance following primary genital infection of C57BL/6 mice with Chlamydia muridarum. As seen previously, IFN-γ-, and IFN-γR-deficient mice resolved much of FRT infection, but experienced systemic dissemination and 100% mortality with an average median survival of approximately 4 weeks. Mice lacking the Th1 subset defining transcription factor T-bet or the Th2 transcription factor STAT6 both effectively cleared infection from the reproductive tract, suggesting that neither Th1 nor Th2 cells are essential for local bacterial control. In contrast, RORγt mutant mice selectively deficient in Th17 responses exhibited a week delay in clearance compared to wild-type mice. Th17 subset markers were not observed to be upregulated in T-bet−/− mice and markers of Th1 subsets were minimally upregulated in RORγt mutant mice, indicating that compensation between these subsets does not explain bacterial clearance. In conclusion, timely local clearance of Chlamydia muridarum from the reproductive tract requires Th17 CD4 T cells, but will ultimately clear independent of classical T-bet+ Th1 and RORγt+ Th17 cells individually. Studies are underway to examine which alternative CD4 T cell mechanisms contribute to bacterial clearance within the FRT.