Female Rape Survivors Research Articles

Rethinking the Scope of Sexual Violence for Criminal Law Reform

Rape survivors are mostly women, and the perpetrators are mostly men. So, it has a social and cultural dimension. In the article, the problems regarding rape law are shown from the angle of the female rape survivors. The paper discusses how rape is interpreted in Georgian criminal law practice and why one paradigm of rape prevails to this day - a male stranger and a fighting woman who physically resists the perpetrator. Criminal law sets the standard of the “ideal victim’’ for a woman, the “rational” rules of action during rape; in particular, it determines what the “typical behavior” is for a woman before, during, and after sexual violence. If the female rape survivor’s response does not fit into this standard, she remains outside the legal system; her voice is suppressed and disbelieved by the justice. The paper critically examines the Georgian legislative and judicial definition of rape; However, the research is not limited to this; it also includes an analysis of the approaches and scientific views of other jurisdictions. The paper supports a liberal understanding of sexual autonomy and consent. The goal of the paper is to show the essence of non-consensual sexual violence and its superiority compared to the old rape law.

Negotiating between speech and silence as a form of agency: Understanding Dalit women's experiences of sexual violence in India

This article explores the complexities of non-disclosure among female Dalit survivors of rape who negotiate between speech and silence as a means of exercising agency. It analyses the role of Brahmanical patriarchy, Dalit feminism and social constructionist theory to unpack the silence, shame, secrecy and cultural censorship surrounding sex and sexual violence both in India at large and for Dalit women in particular. The study comprised 28 qualitative interviews with Dalit women who had been raped by men; it employs Foucault's notion of resistance, regulation and subjectivity to explore when and to whom these participants chose to disclose their rape. It thus seeks to theories these women's varied responses to their rape as acts of agency and resistance, demonstrating how silence can operate on multiple levels: individual, family and community. It draws on India's #LoSHA movement to demonstrate the dangers of universalizing victim-survivors' experiences of sexual violence and to parse the complexities of speaking out or remaining silent and how these play out in individual and collective contexts. In focusing on Dalit women and situating their non-disclosure within an intersectional context, this work differentiates between the passivity of being silenced and the agency and resistance inherent in the decision to remain silent. Therefore, this paper makes a unique contribution to the literature on patriarchy, Dalit studies, feminism and social constructivism.

South African rape survivors’ expressions of shame, self-blame and internalized-stigma

Post-rape research and support often focuses on external stigma, yet many rape survivors experience appreciable shame, self-blame and internalized-stigma. Despite a growing literature describing the impact of these feelings on survivors' emotional wellbeing, there has been little research on this in South Africa, where an average of 40,000 rape cases are reported annually. To strengthen our understanding of female rape survivors' experiences and perceptions of shame, self-blame and internalized-stigma, we undertook qualitative research with 16 survivors in eThekwini, South Africa. They participated in 2–3 in-depth and life history interviews, that sought to enable them to express how they made meaning of post-rape internalized-stigma, shame and self-blame, and how these may have influenced their psychological reactions to rape. The paper describes the women's experiences and reactions to the rape and reflects on how their descriptions contribute to theoretical perspectives on shame, self-blame and internalized-stigma. The women expressed feelings of shame, self-blame, and internalized-stigma, describing these as distinct, yet inter-connected. These feelings were a reaction to views expressed by family, community members and service providers, their relationship to the perpetrator, the extent of gossip about the incident and gender norms and rape myths. Furthermore, while the stigma was felt at an individual level, it was driven by external stigma enacted at interpersonal and structural/community levels. Women who had experienced more than one rape, explained this through the internally-stigmatizing notion of being ‘rape-able’. This study addresses a significant knowledge gap which could improve contextually appropriate post-rape care services and interventions in South Africa, particularly psychological support for survivors. Finally, while rape survivors should be supported to address their own shame, self-blame and internalized-stigma, external stigma needs to be addressed at interpersonal and structural levels.

Empowering Discourses Countering Negativism towards Female Rape Survivors on Social Media in Cameroon

Empowering Discourses Countering Negativism towards Female Rape Survivors on Social Media in Cameroon

Subverting war narrative in the purview of gender justice: Analysing Bishkanta (2015): A Liberation War documentary from Bangladesh

This article analyses how a Bangladeshi documentary film Bishkanta (The Poison Thorn) () directed by a feminist and cultural activist Farzana Boby negotiates the gendered war narrative of Bangladesh and how the film is being used as an enabling platform for the Birangonas (‘war-raped women’) to express their long-time endured suffering and outrage. The Liberation War of Bangladesh (1971) is amongst the most represented themes in Bangladeshi media culture. However, feminist scholars have been critical about the gender blindness of the depictions, with women’s experiences encoded only as victims. Hence, a documentary demanding recognition of women’s contributions and enabling space for women to speak about their losses, pains and grievance is an exception. By analysing the narrative techniques (i.e. plot, perspective, language and frames) this article shows how Bishkanta represents the stories of female rape survivors and make a claim for gender justice. Our findings suggest, despite Boby’s good intentions, Bishkanta has been reproducing the mainstream victimhood narrative ascribed to these women and occasionally reinscribing the gendered ideology of Liberation War in the mainstream nationalist discourse.

Adiponectin gene polymorphisms and posttraumatic stress disorder symptoms among female rape survivors: an exploratory study

ABSTRACT Background: Rape is a common traumatic event which may result in the development of posttraumatic stress disorder (PTSD), yet few studies have investigated risk biomarkers in sexually traumatised individuals. Adiponectin is a novel cytokine within inflammatory and cardiometabolic pathways with evidence of involvement in PTSD. Objective: This prospective exploratory study in a sample of female rape survivors investigated the association of single nucleotide polymorphisms (SNPs) in the adiponectin gene (ADIPOQ) and posttraumatic stress symptom (PTSS) severity, and the interaction of these SNPs of interest with childhood trauma in modifying the association with PTSS severity. Method: The study involved 455 rape-exposed black South African women (mean age (SD), 25.3 years (±5.5)) recruited within 20 days of being raped. PTSS was assessed using the Davidson Trauma Scale (DTS) and childhood trauma was assessed using a modified version of the Childhood Trauma Scale-Short Form Questionnaire. Eight ADIPOQ SNPs (rs17300539, rs16861194, rs16861205, rs2241766, rs6444174, rs822395, rs1501299, rs1403697) were genotyped using KASP. Mixed linear regression models were used to test additive associations of ADIPOQ SNPs and PTSS severity at baseline, 3 and 6 months following rape. Results: The mean DTS score post-sexual assault was high (71.3 ± 31.5), with a decrease in PTSS severity shown over time for all genotypes. rs6444174TT genotype was inversely associated with baseline PTSS in the unadjusted model (β = −13.6, 95% CI [−25.1; −2.1], p = .021). However, no genotype was shown to be significantly associated with change in PTSS severity over time and therefore ADIPOQ SNP x childhood trauma interaction was not further investigated. Conclusion: None of the ADIPOQ SNPs selected for investigation in this population were shown to be associated with change in PTSS severity over a 6-month period and therefore their clinical utility as risk biomarkers for rape-related PTSD appears limited. These SNPs should be further investigated in possible gene-gene and gene-environment interactions.

Serum adiponectin-levels are predictive of posttraumatic stress disorder in women

BackgroundAccumulative evidence indicates a role for adiponectin, a polypeptide secreted by adipose tissue, in the pathophysiology of posttraumatic disorder (PTSD) via metabolic and inflammatory pathways. This study examined adiponectin as a potential predictive biomarker for PTSD among female rape survivors. MethodsWe evaluated the relationship of baseline serum adiponectin levels to the development of probable PTSD at 3- and 6-months post rape-exposure and compared adiponectin levels between 542 rape-exposed (RE) and 593 rape-unexposed women (RUE). Probable PTSD were defined as a Davidson Trauma Scale score ≥40. Data were analysed using multivariate regression models and a generalized estimating equation (GEE) model. We adjusted for clinically relevant covariates associated with PTSD, as well as adiposity indices. ResultsParticipants who were in the mid-and high adiponectin tertile groups versus the lowest tertile group had a significantly reduced risk of probable PTSD at 6 months follow-up, independent of adiposity(aOR = 0.45[0.22–1.05], p = 0.035; aOR = 0.44[0.22–0.90], p = 0.024). However, there was no effect of group (RE vs. RUE). LimitationsAdiponectin assays were conducted on non-fasting blood samples and information on chronic medication, dietary factors and levels of physical activity were not collected. There was a high attrition rate among rape exposed participants. ConclusionsOur results show that higher serum adiponectin levels are associated with reduced risk of probable PTSD over a 6-month period. This finding supports the hypothesis that serum adiponectin is a potential risk biomarker for PTSD.

Self-compassion and Shame Among Rape Survivors.

Women are at increased risk for post-traumatic stress disorder (PTSD) and depression associated with rape, and shame plays a vital role in the development and maintenance of PTSD and depression. Thus, there is a need to identify factors that may decrease shame among female survivors of adult rape. Self-compassion may be one such factor. The present study used path analysis in MPlus version 7.3 to examine the indirect effect of self-compassion on PTSD and depression via rape-related shame. We hypothesized that higher levels of self-compassion would be associated with lower levels of rape-related shame, which in turn would be associated with lower levels of PTSD and depression. College women (N = 305) who reported experiencing rape completed anonymous online surveys assessing rape, self-compassion, rape-related shame, PTSD, and depression. Consistent with our hypothesis, results indicated that self-compassion was negatively associated with assault-related shame, which in turn was positively associated with PTSD and depression. There was also a significant indirect effect of self-compassion on PTSD and depression via rape-related shame. Further, rape-related shame fully explained the relation between self-compassion and PTSD. Findings suggest that self-compassion may be an appropriate target to reduce rape-related shame and may subsequently facilitate reductions in PTSD and depression symptoms.

Immediate and Delayed Reactions to Trauma-related Laboratory Research Among Rape Survivors and Controls.

Ethical implications of laboratory-based experimental trauma research are not well studied. Female rape survivors (N = 62) and controls (N = 79) listened to an audio recording of a sexual assault and completed mental health measures and the Reactions to Research Participation Questionnaire-Revised in the first session and again several weeks later. In the first session, mental health symptoms were associated with stronger emotional reactions and personal benefits from participation. Rape survivors also reported stronger emotional reactions than controls, but also more personal benefits, more satisfaction, and fewer perceived drawbacks from participation. Several weeks later, both groups reported diminished posttraumatic stress disorder symptoms and rape survivors' reports of stronger emotional reactions and greater satisfaction with their participation remained significant. Benefit-cost ratios indicate positive responses to participation across groups and time. Findings suggest significant benefits to laboratory trauma research for participants.

What's in a Label? The Impact of Media and Sexual Assault Characteristics on Survivor Rape Acknowledgment.

Media coverage of sexual assault has increased since 2017 due to high-profile cases and social media campaigns designed to increase awareness of sexual assault. The purpose of this study was to examine whether media coverage of the Harvey Weinstein allegations and the onset of the 2017 viral #MeToo movement impacted the likelihood of college women acknowledging their own victimization as rape. Participants were 207 female rape survivors who completed an online survey that included assessments of survivor acknowledgment and characteristics of the sexual assault. Some participants completed the study prior to the Harvey Weinstein allegations and onset of the #MeToo movement, and some participants completed the study after these events. The likelihood of survivors labeling their experience as rape did not differ based on when participants completed the study, odds ratios (ORs) = 0.61-3.92, ps = .127-.604. Use of both nonforceful verbal resistance, OR = 2.63, p = .001, and assertive resistance, OR = 3.05, p < .001, were positively associated with the likelihood of survivor acknowledgment. The effects of both perpetrators' use of force and experiencing immobility on survivor acknowledgment were moderated by the timing of study completion, ORs = 4.22 and 0.11, respectively, ps = .023-.040. These findings suggest that media coverage may impact how certain sexual assault characteristics influence how survivors label their victimization experiences.

How Female Disclosure Recipients React to Women Survivors: The Impact of Rape Acknowledgment and Rejection of Rape Myths

Because female rape survivors who are listened to and believed have been found to have fewer difficulties, it is essential that researchers examine factors that influence the social reactions survivors receive. The present experiment included 397 female U.S. college-students who were randomly assigned to read a vignette that either reflected an acknowledged rape survivor (i.e., used the word “rape” to describe the incident) or described an unacknowledged rape survivor (e.g., used the word “miscommunication” to describe the incident). The college women then answered questions about their own levels of rape myth rejection and indicated on measures of positive social reactions, negative social reactions, and victim blame how they would respond to the hypothetical rape survivor. The results demonstrated that the female participants’ answers on positive social reactions and victim blame were a function of both the survivors’ acknowledgment status and the participants’ rape myth rejection. The interaction was not supported for negative social reactions, but this non-finding may have stemmed from a restricted range of variance and overall low scores on that variable. The results are discussed in the context of both individual and systemic interventions that may lead to more positive, helpful, and affirming responses to survivors via the reduction of rape myths.

Attitudes Toward Men and Rejection of Rape Myths: The Impact on Survivor Rape Acknowledgment.

Because unacknowledged rape survivors (i.e., those who do not conceptualize their victimization as rape) are less likely to report the crime to police or seek formal services, a better understanding of factors that contribute to rape acknowledgment is a key step to improving access to care and assault reporting on college campuses. To contribute to this line of research, this study examined the indirect effect of sexist attitudes toward men on rape acknowledgment via rejection of rape myths among female rape survivors. The analyzed sample included 250 college female rape survivors (M age = 22.49 years, SD = 7.27) who completed measures of sexual assault history, sexist beliefs toward men, and rejection of rape myths. Among these women, 49.6% were classified as acknowledged rape survivors and 50.4% of the sample was classified as unacknowledged rape survivors. Indirect effects of sexist beliefs on rape acknowledgment via rape myth rejection were supported for four types of sexist beliefs, including resentment of paternalism, compensatory gender differentiation, maternalism, and complementary gender differentiation. Specifically, the findings supported that people with greater levels of these particular types of sexist beliefs toward men rejected rape myths less, and lower rejection of rape myths was associated with increased likelihood of unacknowledged rape. The indirect effects were not supported for the heterosexual hostility or heterosexual intimacy subscales of sexist beliefs. By identifying antecedents of rape acknowledgment, the findings from this study can be used to inform programming geared toward encouraging survivors to seek services, which ultimately improves survivor outcomes.

PTSD and female sexuality in the aftermath of childhood and adolescent sexual abuse in Una’s Becoming Unbecoming

ABSTRACT In this essay, I examine the representation of female sexuality in the aftermath of childhood and adolescent sexual abuse and in the course of post-traumatic stress disorder (PTSD) in Una’s Becoming Unbecoming. Drawing from work on mental illness, social justice, and graphic medicine, I investigate the narrativisation of the autobiographical subject’s suffering through the comics medium. My aim is to show how Becoming Unbecoming counters the silences and stereotypes existing around the sexuality of abused and mentally ill women and girls. In her attempt to represent the symptoms of PTSD – itself the outcome of sexual violence – and to remove stigma from female rape survivors, Una makes use of braiding and metaphors in her narrative. These allow for a complex demonstration of PTSD symptoms and of the autobiographical subject’s desire for (sexual) intimacy as she grows up. In this way, Becoming Unbecoming breaks into the silence and challenges the stereotypes that render the sexuality of (mentally ill) women and girls invisible at best and perverse at worst.

Improving the quality of care for female rape survivors at Scottish Livingstone Hospital, Molepolole, Botswana: A quality improvement cycle.

BackgroundRape is prevalent in Botswana, but there has been limited research undertaken to improve the quality of healthcare for female rape survivors in this clinical setting. Research can not only influence the health outcomes of victims but also has the potential to inform policy.AimThe aim of this study was to improve the quality of care for female rape survivors in Scottish Livingstone Hospital, Molepolole, Botswana.SettingThe setting is Scottish Livingstone Hospital, Molepolole, Botswana.MethodsThis study was a qualitative cycle, using the normal steps of performing a baseline audit of clinical practice, planning and implementing changes and re-audit.ResultsA total of 124 patient records were audited, comprising 62 patient records at baseline and re-audit. The mean age of victims was 23 years and the age category with the highest incidence of rape ranged between 12 and 20 years, constituting 47% of patients’ records. During the baseline audit, only one out of 10 structural standards was met, while at re-audit eight structural standards were fully met. Although none of the process standards were met during both audits, statistically significant improvements in performance (p < 0.05) were shown in six out of 10 criteria at re-audit.ConclusionThe quality of care for female rape survivors is suboptimal in our setting. However, simple interventions to improve the structure in place for patients and upskilling the entire practice team to align care to current international standards can improve the overall quality of healthcare.

Between Trauma and Resilience

This article discusses the personal narratives (both published and personal interviews collected for the purpose of this study) of female survivors of wartime rape in post–World War II Germany and postconflict Bosnia and Herzegovina. The authors examine how the women succeed in finding their words both for and beyond the rupture caused by the rapes through examples of life writing that challenge the dominant masculinist historical narrative of war created for ideological reasons and for the benefit of the nation-state. Using theories of trauma and insights by feminist scholars and historians, the authors argue that a transnational reading of survivors’ accounts from these very different geopolitical and historical contexts not only shows multiple points of mutual influence, but also how these narratives can make a significant contribution, both locally and globally, when it comes to revisiting how wartime rape is memorialized, and how lessons learned from the two contexts can be relevant and applicable in other situations of armed conflict as well.

Rape related pregnancy: Concept analysis

Rape related pregnancy is a public health problem affecting female rape survivors of sexual assault especially adolescents. A number of factors influence the occurrence of rape related pregnancy which includes environmental, cultural, social, religious beliefs and some family relationships that lead to delays or total failure to seek care. Rape victims who fall pregnant experience considerable physical, psychological, social and spiritual trauma which could be avoided if emergency interventions were accessed but care seeking is low. Therefore, it is essential to obtain data that will assist the caregivers in the difficult task of reducing consequences of rape related pregnancy. Methodology: Walker & Avant (2011) 8 step classic procedure for concept analysis was adopted in analysing the concept of rape related pregnancy. Literature search was done in 3 weeks and out of 28 reviewed only 10 articles were selected for analysis. Google scholar search engine was used to assess journals and papers. Results: Literature focused on defining types of rape which in this paper are attributes of rape related pregnancy. Rape related pregnancy was defined as any pregnancy resulting from forced sex, reproductive coercion, statutory rape and sexual act with a woman of any age who cannot offer consent or resistance due to drug or alcohol intoxication or any other vulnerability. Conclusion: In addressing needs of women with rape related pregnancy, there is need for a well-informed decision-making process covering the scope of legal, religious, social and cultural aspects in the context of each individual survivor. There is therefore need to explore the lived experiences of these women so as to develop client centred care protocols.

The Indirect Effect of Coping Self-Efficacy on the Relation Between Sexual Violence and PTSD Symptoms.

One in five women experience rape and one in four experience unwanted sexual contact, incurring significant risk of negative psychological outcomes such as posttraumatic stress disorder (PTSD). Given this heightened risk, it is imperative to examine factors that can inhibit the development of PTSD symptoms in response to sexual violence in women. Perceived coping self-efficacy (CSE) is a cognitive appraisal ability utilized to regulate internal and external stressors that arise from traumatic events and is crucial for effective adaptation after traumas such as sexual violence. This study investigated CSE as a potential protective factor against trauma-related psychopathology in female rape survivors. In this study, 518 female undergraduate students (M age = 22.71 years, SD = 8.33 years; 82.4% Caucasian) completed self-report measures of nonconsensual sexual experiences, CSE, and PTSD symptom severity. Of those, 375 women (M age = 22.89 years, SD = 6.91 years; 83.7% Caucasian) reported at least one incident of a nonconsensual sexual experience. We hypothesized that CSE would indirectly affect the relationship between sexual violence and PTSD symptom severity, such that CSE would be protective against PTSD symptoms. In line with our hypothesis, there was evidence of a significant indirect effect, 95% confidence interval (CI) = [0.18, 0.44]. This evidence suggests that CSE may be an important protective factor given women's increased risk of developing PTSD symptoms following sexual violence. Furthermore, this finding suggests that programs targeting the development of CSE may prevent or lessen risk of PTSD symptoms following sexual violence.

Residual symptoms following empirically supported treatment for PTSD.

Although there are several evidence-based treatments that are effective in mitigating the symptoms of posttraumatic stress disorder (PTSD), rates of nonresponse to treatment as well as treatment dropout remain high. In order to determine which symptoms remain most problematic at the end of treatment for PTSD, the present study examined residual symptoms in a treatment study that evaluated the effects of cognitive processing therapy (CPT) and prolonged exposure (PE). The sample consisted of 108 female rape survivors who initially met criteria for PTSD and who were then randomized into and completed either CPT or PE. The sample was 71% White and 25% African American, with an average age of 32 years (SD = 9.98 years). Symptoms of PTSD, depression, guilt, and social adjustment were evaluated in the sample of treatment completers, and findings suggest that overall symptoms improved over the course of treatment. Results further suggested that distress related to trauma reminders, detachment, and insomnia were the most common residual PTSD symptoms at posttreatment, while self-blame, concerns about body image, and fatigue were the most common residual symptoms of depression. The most common residual symptom of guilt was lack of justification for actions that had to be taken during the index event. This pattern of findings is in line with past research suggesting that evidence-based practices are effective in the treatment of PTSD, but underscores the need to continue to evaluate residual symptoms to best assist clients in achieving full recovery. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2019 APA, all rights reserved).

Impaired Executive Functioning of Sexual Assault Survivors with Acute Stress Disorder.

This study aimed to examine the executive functioning of survivors exposed to recent sexual assaults. Twenty-seven female rape survivors who met the criterion for acute stress disorder (ASD) were enrolled and completed the assessment within 4 weeks after the traumatic experience. Additionally, 25 age-matched female health controls (HC) never exposed to such a traumatic event were enrolled. The assessments evaluated psychiatric symptoms including post-traumatic stress symptoms, depression, anxiety, and trait and state anger; general intelligence indexed by intellectual quotient (IQ); and executive functioning including set-shift/attention, planning, spatial working memory, and inhibition using the Cambridge Neuropsychological Test Automated Battery. The ASD group showed higher levels of depression, anxiety, and state anger, and lower IQ than the HC group. The ASD group also showed global impairment of executive functioning for set-shifting, attention, planning, and response inhibition compared to the HC group. Rather than being associated with low IQ and education levels, these results could be from trauma-related effects in survivors with ASD. Additionally, the state anger level was related to survivors’ deficient executive functioning. The findings indicate the importance of providing assessment and intervention efforts to sexual assault survivors soon after the trauma occurs.

Genome-wide differentially methylated genes associated with post-traumatic stress disorder in female rape survivors

IntroductionAlterations to the epigenome in response to psychological trauma have been reported as a mechanism mediating gene and environmental interaction. Differentially methylated genes involved in the biological pathways associated with the adverse phenotypic behavioural presentations in post-traumatic stress disorder (PTSD) have previously been identified. However, the majority of studies have focussed on differential methylation of single candidate genes in participants exposed to heterogeneous index traumas. The objective of this study was to identify genome-wide differences in methylation profiles of a group of women exposed to rape, with and without PTSD.MethodsFemale isiZulu participants (n = 48) between 18 and 40 years of age, who reported an incident of rape within the previous 20 days, were recruited from three Thuthuzela care centres and a crisis clinic in Durban, KwaZulu-Natal. Rape-exposed participants with and without PTSD were matched on HIV status, age, childhood maltreatment and other lifetime trauma exposure, body mass index and smoking status. DNA was extracted from peripheral blood and analysed using the Illumina Epic BeadChip microarray. Logistic regression models, adjusting for multiple comparisons, were used to identify differentially methylated genes in participants with and without PTSD at 3 months post-rape.ResultsFour hundred twenty-three differentially methylated genomic regions were associated with PTSD status. Paired Box 8 (PAX8), encompassing eight CpG sites (p = 9.14E-20 and Zinc Finger Protein 57 [ZFP57]) and 19 CpG sites (p = 4.84E-18) were among the top 20 genomic regions significantly associated with PTSD in this data set, which were previously found to be associated with PTSD in other traumatised cohorts.ConclusionPAX8 may be involved in PTSD symptoms related to sleeping difficulties and ZFP57 is believed to be involved in susceptibility to stress governed by differential methylation in hippocampal cells. This is the first study, to our knowledge, to investigate genome-wide profiles of women exposed to rape in Africa. Confirmation of these findings will require replication in larger cohorts.