Female Neurosurgeons Research Articles

Maria Karampouga the first female neurosurgeon graduate in Cyprus.

Promoting the involvement of women in surgery, particularly in neurosurgery, is crucial in today's male-dominated landscape. Without proper recognition and encouragement, many talented and pioneering women may continue to be undervalued, despite their significant impact on the field. Gender inequality has been a persistent issue throughout history, with limited progress despite the increasing presence of women in the workforce. Historically, women were viewed as inferior to men, even within the medical profession, due to perceived physical differences. This perception was reinforced in religious texts, depicting women as bearing the consequences of the first woman's actions. However, it is important to recognize and support these talented women, allowing them to showcase their contributions in their respective fields. One notable figure in this regard is Maria Karampouga, the first female neurosurgeon graduate in Cyprus. Born in Alexandroupolis, Greece, Maria Karampouga began her medical training after passing a national examination and achieving excellence. After successfully completing her studies, attaining the top score in her graduating class she began a residency in general surgery and then neurosurgery in Greece. Seeking the best possible training, she left her studies incomplete and moved to Cyprus to restart her training in Neurosurgery. She was the first woman ever associated with Neurosurgery in Cyprus and in June 2023, she became the first woman to complete the country's residency program in Neurosurgery. Currently, she is a researcher at University of Pittsburg, Medical Center.

Dr. Thanjavur Santhanakrishna Kanaka: Asia's First Female Neurosurgeon and a Pioneer of Functional Neurosurgery.

Dr. Thanjavur Santhanakrishna Kanaka significantly advanced Indian healthcare through her pioneering contributions to modern surgical techniques and advocacy for gender equity in medical education. Her research in stereotactic surgery and electrode implantation, coupled with her focus on cost-effective care for low-income patients, has had a profound impact on neurosurgery. Dr. Kanaka's enduring legacy continues to inspire and shape the field, reflecting her substantial influence on both medical practice and community service.

Effects of Gender and Country of Training on Perceived Access to Opportunities for Neurosurgical Research and Gender-Concordant Mentorship

The current neurosurgical workforce is not large enough to address the significant burden of neurosurgical disease worldwide, and women are under-represented in this surgical specialty. However, trainee opportunities are particularly scarce in lower- and middle-income countries, where the burden of neurosurgical disease is high. Thus, the primary aim of this study was to assess the effects of gender and country on perceived access to neurosurgical research and mentorship opportunities. A cross-sectional survey evaluating perceived access to neurosurgical research and mentorship opportunities was distributed electronically to medical students and unspecialized residents in 10 countries (Colombia, India, Ghana, Nigeria, Saudi Arabia, Spain, Uganda, the United Kingdom, the United States, and Venezuela). 34.0% of men versus 24.9% of women reported interest in neurosurgery (P < 0.001). Only 16.1% of trainees reported adequate access to neurosurgical research opportunities, which did not vary by gender overall (P= 0.070). However, more women reported inadequate access in the United States (P= 0.038), and more men reported inadequate access in Colombia (P= 0.043). In Colombia (P < 0.001), Nigeria (P= 0.003), Saudi Arabia (P= 0.038), the United States (P= 0.004), and Venezuela (P < 0.001), a lower proportion of women than men reported ever having a neurosurgery mentor of their same gender. 59.0% of female respondents noted that having access to female neurosurgeon mentors would increase their interest in neurosurgery, compared to 28.5% of male respondents (P < 0.001). More male than female medical trainees in the surveyed countries reported interest in neurosurgery. However, access to adequate neurosurgical research opportunities, although relatively low overall, did not vary by gender in most countries. Access to gender-concordant mentorship was less common for women than for men, but women expressed that enhanced access to female neurosurgeon mentors would increase their interest in the field. These findings suggest potential avenues for intervention to augment and diversify the global neurosurgical workforce.

Where are the women in spine surgery? A demographic study of the range of gender disparity in academic spine hospitals in the United States

BACKGROUND CONTEXTThere is a paucity of women in the field of academic spine surgery. In 2022, 20% of orthopedic surgery residents and 24% of neurosurgery residents were women, the lowest and third lowest of all medical specialties respectively. There exists a significant discrepancy in the number of women employed as adult spine surgeons at academic hospitals. PURPOSETo quantify the number of female attending spine surgeons at academic hospitals and identify institutions that based on faculty diversity are demonstrating inequity. STUDY DESIGNDescriptive. METHODSDemographic data was collected utilizing the 2023 to 2024 NASS Fellowship Directory in combination with publicly available information on faculty profiles from January 1, 2024 to January 30, 2024. Data collected included gender and training institutions (medical school, residency, and fellowship). Adult spine fellowship-trained orthopedic surgeons and neurosurgeons who perform adult spine surgery were included. RESULTSThere are 943 neurosurgical and orthopedic adult spine surgeons employed at 73 academic hospitals. The breakdown of orthopedic spine surgeons versus neurosurgeons is roughly equivalent, at 453 and 490, respectively. Among orthopedic spine surgeons, 19 out of 453 (4%) are female. Among neurosurgeons, 44 out of 490 (9%) are female. The number of female academic spine surgeons who are neurosurgeons is more than double that of orthopedic surgeons. Twelve out of the 19 (63%) female orthopedic spine surgeons, and 16 out of the 44 (36%) female neurosurgeons are employed at the program where they trained. Out of 45 larger academic spine hospitals with >10 faculty members, there were 15 without any female faculty. There is 1 academic hospital with ≥ 20 spine faculty, and zero women. CONCLUSIONThe number of women pursuing academic spine careers continues to lag behind present day demographics of training programs. These continued trends should prompt both individuals and institutions to support progress in gender disparity research.

African Women in Neurosurgery: An Exploration of Historical Perspectives, Current Realities, and Future Prospects

Gender disparities remain a significant issue, particularly impacting African women in the field of neurosurgery. Databases, articles, and perspectives were reviewed to identify challenges faced by African Women in Neurosurgery (AWIN), and explore solutions for recruitment, retention, and career advancement of AWIN. In 1982, Africa saw its first female neurosurgeon, with the first female president of the World Federation of Neurosurgical Societies appointed 4 null decades later. Presently, the continent hosts 245 female neurosurgeons, with North Africa comprising the majority at 76.3%, with Algeria notably contributing 72.2% of this total. Southern Africa contributes 7.8%, while West Africa, East Africa, and Central Africa contribute 6.5%, 6.1%, and 3.3%, respectively. Thirteen countries lack neurosurgeons entirely and 30 out of the 54 African nations face shortages of female neurosurgeons, with distributions as follows: North Africa (1-country), Southern Africa (6-countries), West Africa (8-countries), East Africa (9-countries), and Central Africa (6-countries). Our analysis mapped the distribution of 245 AWIN across the African regions and examined the professional trajectories and achievements of 17 pioneering AWIN. Additionally, we compiled registries for: 1) 76 neurosurgical training programs across 26 African countries, 2) organizations tackling gender disparities in neurosurgery, and 3) recommendations to promote AWIN across governmental, community, and academic spheres. To boost AWIN representation in neurosurgery, concerted and comprehensive efforts are vital. Collaboration among medical schools, training programs, and governments is key to fostering diversity and inclusivity in African neurosurgical settings.

A brief history of neurosurgery in Bosnia and Herzegovina: historical vignette.

The modern period of neurosurgery in Bosnia and Herzegovina began with the first neurosurgical procedure performed by Dr. Karl Bayer in 1891 on 3 patients with depressed skull fractures and epilepsy. In 1956 the Department of Surgery in Sarajevo designated several beds specifically for a neurosurgical unit. A significant milestone in the history of neurosurgery in Bosnia and Herzegovina was the establishment of the Division of Neurosurgery at the Clinical Center University of Sarajevo in 1970. The first neurosurgeon to complete his training in Bosnia and Herzegovina was Dr. Faruk Konjhodžić. The first female neurosurgeon was Dr. Nermina Iblizović. Presently, there are 7 neurosurgical departments in the country, located in Sarajevo, Tuzla, Zenica, Mostar, Banja Luka, Bihać, and Foča. The Association of Neurosurgeons in Bosnia and Herzegovina, founded in 2003, is a member of the European Association of Neurosurgical Societies and the World Federation of Neurosurgical Societies. The aim of this historical paper is to provide a concise chronology of important events and mention key individuals who have contributed to the development of modern neurosurgery in Bosnia and Herzegovina.

Leading medical schools for female neurosurgery graduates.

The authors sought to determine the medical schools with the highest number and proportion of female graduates currently practicing neurosurgery and to identify medical school characteristics that increase female representation in neurosurgery, with the goal of addressing the gender disparity. The authors used the Physician Compare National Downloadable File from the Centers for Medicare & Medicaid Services. Physicians indicating neurosurgery as their primary specialty were extracted. Duplicates, physicians with medical school education listed as "other," and those expected to be in residency, fellowship, or research years (graduation years 2014-2023) were removed. Medical schools with the highest number and proportion of female neurosurgery graduates were stratified. A review of the current literature was conducted to identify characteristics of the institutions with high female representation. A total of 3486 neurosurgeons (319 female [9.2%], 3167 male [90.8%]) were identified. Yale University (n = 12), Columbia University (n = 8), Johns Hopkins University (n = 8), Stanford University (n = 8), and the University of Maryland (n = 8) had the most female neurosurgery graduates. Schools with the highest proportion of female neurosurgery graduates included the University of California, San Diego (25%); the State University of New York Upstate Medical University (25%); Pennsylvania State University (22.2%); the University of Maryland (21.1%); and the University of Florida (18.4%). Achieving gender diversity in neurosurgery necessitates a multifaceted approach. Institutions with a higher number and proportion of female neurosurgery graduates emphasized female-female mentorship, fostered diversity initiatives, and implemented inclusive policies. To increase female representation in neurosurgery, it is crucial to establish robust mentorship programs that provide aspiring female neurosurgeons with the guidance, support, and motivation required to navigate a traditionally male-dominated field.

Sofia Ionescu: Pioneering the Birth of Neurosurgery in Romania and Becoming the First Female Neurosurgeon in the World

Sofia Ionescu (1920-2008) was the first female neurosurgeon in the world, pioneering her field with skill, dedication, and humility. Born in Romania, she began her career amidst the tumult of World War II, performing her first neurosurgical procedure in 1944. Despite initial skepticism, her talent and commitment earned her recognition, culminating in her acknowledgment as the first female neurosurgeon by the World Federation of Neurosurgical Societies in 2005. Throughout her illustrious career, she mentored colleagues, contributed to scientific literature, and innovated surgical techniques, all while maintaining a compassionate and composed demeanor. Her legacy serves as a beacon of inspiration for neurosurgeons worldwide, reminding them of the importance of diligence, empathy, and unwavering dedication to patient care. Even in retirement, her influence endures, as she continues to be revered for her remarkable contributions to the field of neurosurgery.

Alice Rosenstein (1898–1991) First German Female Neurosurgeon

Gender inequality has been a long-standing issue throughout history, with limited progress despite the rise of women in the workforce. Historically, women were deemed inferior to men, including within the medical profession, due to perceived bodily differences. This perception was reinforced in religious texts, depicting women as bearing the burden of the first woman's transgressions. Such attitudes also influenced the treatment of women's health, with menstruation viewed as a natural source of suffering. Nevertheless, a thorough examination of medical history unveils a deep-rooted bias against women. This antiquated and discriminatory notion lacks any foundation in scientific truth. Indeed, an examination of the contributions made by female physicians reveals that they deliver equivalent levels of care, attentiveness, preventive measures, and therapeutic efficacy as their male counterparts. The narratives of female trailblazers in the medical field, like Alice Rosenstein, the first female neurosurgeon in Germany, provide compelling evidence of this phenomenon. This paper delves into her professional journey and the significant influence she has had on the field of neurosurgery.

The State of Diversity Among Consultant Neurosurgeons in the United Kingdom: Open Science, Education and Academic Success

It is important to have a diverse workforce in clinical and research environments. A cross-sectional study was conducted to examine the possible presence of gender, perceived skin color, education, academic productivity, and career progression inequalities among neurosurgeons in the United Kingdom. A list of all consultant neurosurgeons working in the United Kingdom (N= 384) was obtained from the Specialist Info website. Data about their education, research activity, academic productivity, impact, and progression were obtained from publicly available online sources. Over 90% of consultants and all full professors were men. There was a small number of black or brown consultant neurosurgeons and no black full professors. Very few black or brown consultants obtained their medical degree from a top university or had a PhD. There were no gender disparities in currently being affiliated with a university (or top university), obtaining a PhD or Master's degree, ranking of the university from which they obtained their medical degree, Master's degree or PhD, or number of pages and open access availability of their PhD thesis. Neurosurgeons who obtained their medical degree from the UK and those with a PhD had more publications, citations and a higher h-index. Male (vs. female) academic neurosurgeons had more publications, nonself-citations, and a higher h-index, and white (vs. brown) female neurosurgeons had more citations per paper. This study identified important gender, skin color, education, academic productivity, and career progression inequalities in the 2023 UK consultant neurosurgery workforce.

Concerns, Perceptions, and Career Considerations of Female Medical Students Interested in Neurosurgery: A Qualitative Case Study

Neurosurgery exhibits notably lower representation of Black, Hispanic, and female surgeons compared to various other medical and surgical specialties. Existing research focuses on medical students' views on surgeons, factors influencing female medical students' preferences in surgical fields, and the perceived interests and concerns of students contemplating a career in neurosurgery. However, there is a significant gap in understanding the unique concerns and perspectives of female medical students interested in neurosurgery. Semistructured interviews with female medical students were recruited from medical schools in the District of Columbia area. Interview questions were based on Lent and Brown's Social Cognitive Career Theory. Transcripts were analyzed thematically into codes. In total, 8 female medical students from our institution participated. We identified 3 major themes that influenced medical students decision-making: sense of belonging (diversity, mentorship, and passionate), self-efficacy (ambitious/"gunner," intense/competitive), and outcome expectations (innovation/research, immediate impact, procedural/surgical aspect, salary, and work-life balance). Female medical students face distinct challenges and factors to consider when choosing a career in neurological surgery. The biggest concern for female students was a sense of belonging. It is imperative to enhance the diversity within the neurosurgical specialty and boost the representation of female neurosurgeons. Early interventions designed to tackle and alleviate their specific concerns are pivotal in achieving this goal.

P.112 Understanding obstacles: a neurosurgical view on gender disparities in career progression

Background: Gender disparities persist in neurosurgery, unfortunately impacting career progression for women. Understanding these challenges is vital for fostering inclusivity. Methods: An international survey designed using a physician wellness framework was sent to neurosurgeons between June 2021 and November 2021. Univariate analysis (Kruskal-Wallis Test) was performed to assess various aspects of perceived career progression as a function of gender. Results: Of the total 537 respondents (64% neurosurgeons, 6% fellows, and 30% residents), 69% identified as male, 29% as female, and 2% as other. Compared to their male colleagues, female neurosurgeons expressed greater desire to advance in their career (p&lt;0.05) and to leave their home country in the interest of job prospects (p&lt;0.05). Despite these aspirations, female neurosurgeons reported that they did not have available career advancement opportunities (p&lt;0.05), that the culture in their country inhibited their career advancement (p&lt;0.05), and that they felt subject to harassment at their workplace (p&lt;0.05). Conclusions: Our survey highlights significant gender-related obstacles in neurosurgical career advancement. Female neurosurgeons express strong career aspirations but face barriers such as limited opportunities, cultural impediments, and harassment. Addressing these challenges is crucial for achieving gender equity in neurosurgery.

P.113 Mind the gap: illuminating gender disparities in neurosurgical inclusion and diversity

Background: Gender disparities endure in neurosurgery, impacting the experiences of female practitioners. Unveiling these challenges is crucial for promoting inclusivity and addressing the unique obstacles faced by women in the field. Methods: An international survey designed using a physician wellness framework was sent to neurosurgeons between June 2021 and November 2021. Univariate analysis (Kruskal-Wallis Test) was performed to assess feelings of inclusion and diversity as a function of gender. Results: Of the total 384 respondents (65% neurosurgeons, 6% fellows, and 29% residents), 71% identified as male, 27% as female, and 2% as other. Compared to their male colleagues, female neurosurgeons more strongly endorsed feeling that their career progression has been limited by their gender (p&lt;0.05) and were less likely to feel entrusted in their surgical ability (p&lt;0.05) or to have equal access to surgical resources (p&lt;0.05). Furthermore, they were less likely to endorse feelings that leaders in their department were committed to creating an inclusive environment (p&lt;0.05). Conclusions: Our survey sheds light on significant gender-related disparities in neurosurgery. Female neurosurgeons express heightened concerns about gender-limiting career progression, reduced trust in their surgical abilities, and disparities in resource access. These findings underscore the imperative to foster a more inclusive and supportive environment within the field.

In-State Retention Rates of Female Neurosurgery Graduates

We sought to determine the rate of retaining female neurosurgery graduates in the same states as their medical education and identify medical school and state characteristics associated with high retention rates. Database from the Centers for Medicare & Medicaid Services was used to extract female physicians indicating "neurosurgery" as their specialty. The top 25 medical schools with the highest number of female neurosurgery graduates were selected. Descriptive analysis was used to determine the retention rate of female neurosurgery graduates. Univariable and multivariable analyses were used to identify medical school and state characteristics associated with high retention rates. Medical schools with the highest retention rate included the University of California, San Francisco (60%), the University of Alabama (60%), and the University of Pennsylvania (60%). Univariable and multivariable analysis showed the number of female neurosurgery attendings (β=0.036, 95% confidence interval [CI]=0.003 to 0.070, P=0.04 and β=0.036, CI=0.001 to 0.071, P=0.04.) and the healthcare employment rate (β=0.098, CI=0.011 to 0.186, P=0.03 and β=0.117, CI=0.021 to 0.212, P=0.02) to be positively associated with the retention rate of female neurosurgery graduates. Retaining female neurosurgery graduates within a state is essential for addressing the physician shortage and gender inequality. To encourage female medical students to practice in the same state, medical schools and states should work collectively to improve the visibility of female neurosurgeons and increase employment opportunities.

Aimée Redondo, the First Female Neurosurgeon Professor in France

It is crucial to promote the role of women in surgery, particularly in the field of neurosurgery, which is still predominantly male-dominated. Without recognition and support, these talented and pioneering women may continue to be overlooked, despite their significant contributions to the field. One such remarkable woman is Professor Aimée Redondo, the first female neurosurgeon professor in France. She was born in 1944 during the last years of World War II to immigrant parents from Spain. Thanks to grants and scholarships from the French government, Aimée Redondo was able to continue her education. She excelled in high school and even passed the entrance exam for medical school on her first attempt - a rare achievement at the time. In 1975, at the young age of 31, she became the first female professor of neurosurgery in France. After completing her residency, she worked as a senior neurosurgeon at the Salpêtrière Hospital in Paris and then joined the newly established department of neurosurgery at Beaujon Hospital. For over thirty years, she was a crucial member of this department and served as its head from 2004 until her retirement. Sadly, she passed away in 2022 at the age of 78.

Women in Nigerian Neurosurgery: A Cross-Sectional Survey

Although women have made remarkable strides in several medical specialties in Sub-Saharan Africa, their presence and contribution to the development of neurosurgery remain limited. We sought to study the gender differences within Nigerian neurosurgery, identify challenges resulting from these differences, and recommend how African female neurosurgeons can maximize their effects in neurosurgery. A structured online survey captured data on neurosurgical infrastructural capacity, workforce, and training from neurosurgical consultants and residents in neurosurgical centers in Nigeria. All the collected data were coded and analyzed. Altogether, 82 neurosurgical consultants and 67 neurosurgical residents from 50 primary medical institutions in Nigeria completed the online survey. Only 8 of the respondents (5.4%) were women, comprising 3 consultants, 2 senior residents, and 3 junior residents. Although 40.2% of the respondents did not believe that being female affected the decision of whether to specialize in neurosurgery, 46.3% believed that being female was a disadvantage. Most did not believe that being female affected admission (57.8%), completion of a neurosurgery residency (58.5%), or life working as a neurosurgeon after graduation (63.4%). The most common challenges women face while navigating through neurosurgery training and practice are erosion of family and social life, lack of female mentors, and lack of a work-life balance. There is a deficit of both female consultants and trainees among Nigerian neurosurgeons. Identifying female medical students with a strong interest in neurosurgery and providing early mentorship might increase the number of female neurosurgeons.

An Investigation of Patient Preferences and Gender Dynamics of Neurosurgeon Selection in Taiwan: A Mixed-Method Study

ObjectiveTo investigate the influence of gender on patient preferences during the selection of neurosurgeons. MethodsA mixed-method, cross-sectional study was conducted at Linkou Chang Gung Memorial Hospital in Taiwan, involving 60 patients. The study encompassed both structured questionnaires and in-depth interviews, administered post patient-surgeon interactions to assess the nuanced effect of surgeon gender on patient choice. A balanced representation of both genders was ensured among the neurosurgeons involved. Thematic analysis was employed for textual data, while numeric data were analyzed using descriptive and Chi-square statistics. ResultsThe majority of participants (n=40, 66.7%) expressed no preference regarding the gender of their neurosurgeon during outpatient consultations. Nonetheless, a notable fraction, predominantly female, preferred female neurosurgeons (n=20, 33.3%). Statistical analysis highlighted a significant correlation between the gender of the patients and their preferred neurosurgeon's gender, with female patients predominantly favouring female neurosurgeons (p < .05). Qualitative insights indicate that, although professional skill and experience are primary factors in selecting a neurosurgeon, a latent gender preference exists, influenced by perceived privacy, empathetic care, and the surgical finesse associated with female neurosurgeons. ConclusionsAlthough expertise and professionalism are of paramount importance, there is a clear preference for female neurosurgeons, especially among female patients. These findings underscore the importance of recognizing and accommodating patients’ preferences to ensure neurosurgical care aligns with patient comfort, expectations, and the broader movement towards gender equality.

Women in spine surgery: can we change the society?

Although the number of educated women and physicians, and especially neurosurgeons, is increasing worldwide, the educational opportunities, careers, and beliefs concerning female neurosurgeon's status and abilities are undermined. To date, reported studies have focused on the conditions of the work environment, work-life balance, and the academic career of female neurosurgeons. In this study, we aimed to report the patients' viewpoint and how they choose spine physicians. We conducted an international survey based on 19 questions in four languages (Bulgarian, Greek, English, and German). The responses of 413 individuals, unrelated to the medical field (sex, 315 female and 115 male individuals; one individual did not answer the question regarding the gender), were obtained. Except for the question regarding the patient's preference for the physician sex, the survey aimed to examine the factors that might be contributing to this choice, including education, age, heard/read recommendations/advertisements, knowledge regarding the work of the neurosurgeons/orthopedists, and their difference regarding spine surgery. The majority of the participants responded that they prefer male surgeons to treat their spine. The results showed a significant correlation between the choice of a male spine surgeon and heard/read advertisements/recommendations and knowledge regarding the work of the neurosurgeon. Despite the fact that education was not related to physician selection, it was an indirect factor that led to the final choice. Women in surgery, mainly in neurosurgery, are being treated by society in an unequal way. Female surgeons are still discriminated because of their gender. The most patients prefer female physicians to talk to, but still believe that they are incapable to perform spine surgery. We cannot stop this until we change our mindset and perception of reality.

Gender Differences in the Pediatric Neurosurgical Workforce: Professional Practice, Work-Life Balance, and Beyond.

Evidence suggests that female neurosurgeons experience unique challenges in the workplace including lack of academic advancement, challenges with work-life balance, harassment, and discrimination. How these factors influence the gender gap in neurosurgery remains unclear. This analysis investigated gender differences in pediatric neurosurgeons in professional and nonprofessional activities and responsibilities. A survey examining professional activities, work-life balance, family dynamics, career satisfaction, and workplace discrimination and harassment was administered to 495 pediatric neurosurgeons. Response rate was 49% (n = 241). One-third of the pediatric neurosurgical workforce is female. There were no gender differences in race/ethnicity, American Board of Neurological Surgery/American Board of Pediatric Neurological Surgery certification rates, or pediatric neurosurgery fellowship completion. No gender differences were found in operative caseload, weekly hours worked, or working after 8 pm or weekends. Women took call more frequently than men ( P = .044). Men were more likely to work in academia ( P = .004) and have salary subsidization from external sources ( P = .026). Women were more likely to anticipate retirement by age 65 years ( P = .044), were less happy with call commitments ( P = .012), and worked more hours at home while off ( P = .050). Women more frequently reported witnessing and experiencing racial discrimination ( P = .008; P < .001), sexual harassment ( P = .002, P < .001), and feeling less safe at work ( P < .001). Men were more likely married ( P = .042) with 1 ( P = .004) or more children ( P = .034). Women reported significantly greater responsibility for child and domestic care ( P < .001). There were no gender differences in work-life balance, feeling supported at work, or having enough time to do things outside of work. Despite little difference in workload and professional responsibilities, women held more domestic responsibilities and experienced and witnessed more racial and sexual discrimination in the workplace. Surprisingly, there were no reported differences in work-life balance or feeling supported at work between genders. These findings suggest that factors unique to female neurosurgeons may contribute to continued gender disparity in the field.

Excelencia en Neurocirugía: María Cristina García-Sancho, the First Latina Neurosurgeon in the World

Neurosurgery is a specialty that has been dominated by males. Although there has been an increase in the number of women in the field, it is not yet close to being equal. Some noteworthy women who have carved the path for other women to follow in their footsteps include Drs. Sofía Ionescu and Diana Beck, the first and second female neurosurgeons worldwide, respectively. However, there are limited publications on Dr. María Cristina García-Sancho, the first Latina neurosurgeon. The purpose of this review was to illuminate the neurosurgical community on the life of Dr. García-Sancho. A thorough literature was performed on medical and non-medical publications that were either authored by Dr. García-Sancho or mentioned her directly. Dr. García-Sancho earned her medical degree at the School of Medicine of the National Autonomous University of Mexico under the guidance of Dr. Clemente Robles, who founded Mexico's first neurosurgical department. Her training took her worldwide. Her expertise allowed her to pioneer a revolutionary advancement known as the one-step bilateral cordotomy. Her perseverance led her to becoming the head of the Department of Neurosurgery at the National Cancer Institute of Mexico and co-found the Mexican Society of Neurological Surgery, where she served on the board of directors. This review aims to advocate for an equitable environment in the field of neurosurgery with Dr. García-Sancho's story.