Female Migrant Domestic Workers Research Articles

Perceived discrimination and mental health among female migrant domestic workers in Hong Kong: A sequential explanatory mixed-methods study.

Female migrant domestic workers (MDW), often unemployed in their home country, are household workers that migrate abroad for better wages. Although poor employment conditions have shown detrimental effects on MDWs health, the mental health effect of perceived discrimination remains understudied among MDWs. This mixed-methods study seeks to (a) assess the association between perceived discrimination and mental health among female MDWs and (b) explore in-depth the common ways MDWs experience discrimination. A cross-sectional self-administered survey (n = 1965) was conducted among Filipino and Indonesian MDWs from August 2020 to August 2021 in Hong Kong. A multivariable logistic regression model, controlling for background characteristics, assessed associations between perceived discrimination with anxiety and depression. Qualitative semistructured interviews were then conducted (n = 20) to provide in-depth information about perceived discrimination. Thematic analysis was used to identify the contexts and types of discrimination experienced. Among survey respondents, 60.4% reported ever experiencing discrimination, and 10.5% reported often/always feeling discriminated against. Of MDWs, 18.1% and 31.5% were classified with anxiety and depression, respectively. MDWs reporting higher frequency of discrimination were at increased risk of anxiety (ORadj: 2.30-6.60) and depression (ORadj: 2.06-5.91). In-depth interviews revealed that perceived discrimination inside the workplace (from overwork, lack of autonomy, and employer-imposed restrictions) and outside the workplace (from MDW policies) had strong effects on MDWs' mental health. Increased availability to mental health services should be considered. To improve MDW mental health, policymakers may also regulate maximum weekly working hours and ensure minimum standards for living environments. (PsycInfo Database Record (c) 2024 APA, all rights reserved).

Supplemental Material for Perceived Discrimination and Mental Health Among Female Migrant Domestic Workers in Hong Kong: A Sequential Explanatory Mixed-Methods Study

Supplemental Material for Perceived Discrimination and Mental Health Among Female Migrant Domestic Workers in Hong Kong: A Sequential Explanatory Mixed-Methods Study

The Hopeful and Resilient Maids: Assessing the Life Satisfaction of Female Migrant Domestic Workers in Abu Dhabi

The Hopeful and Resilient Maids: Assessing the Life Satisfaction of Female Migrant Domestic Workers in Abu Dhabi

Struggle, Exit, “Resilience”—or How Precarious Workers Cope with Late Neoliberalism. Individual and Collective Agency of Female Migrant Domestic Workers in Spain

Abstract This article inquires the individual and collective agency of female migrant domestic workers in Spain. I use fieldwork conducted between 2013 and 2023 to examine the interplay between the migrant workers’ individual coping strategies, the claims-making strategies of the domestic workers’ trade union Sindihogar, and the structures they operate within and attempt to challenge. Drawing on contemporary research about precarious workers’ movements, I aim to explore to what extent this social movement union has the potential to reduce the power of structural constraints and increase the power of agency. Implicit is a broader, more provocative question: To what extent is substantial change possible within the current political-economic order, here defined as late neoliberalism? I found that while the movement’s community-building approach may empower activists at an individual level, there are significant structural barriers to its potential to accomplish change in terms of better job conditions for this highly precarious workforce. In addition, I suggest that an increasing focus on precarious workers’ “resilience” risks undermining narratives of structural transformation.

Illegal Sri Lankan Female Migrant Domestic Workers in Gulf Countries: An Analysis on Push and Pull Factors

The implementation of new restrictions by the Government of Sri Lanka to discourage unskilled female labour migration through the mandatory ‘Family Background Report’ has resulted in an increase in the number of female illegal migrations. This study efforts to uncover the reasons that motivate women to migrate as domestic workers disregarding the government’s strong discouragement. I argue that gendered push factors coupled with financial motivations trigger illegal and circular migration among women. This explorative research utilizes primary data collected through structured interviews from a sample of sixty-five migrant women which is complemented by secondary data collected from statistics and reports published by the Government of Sri Lanka. The research concludes that government’s inability to address strong push factors that motivates unskilled female labour migration, and its effort to use blanket solutions such as restricting movements through laws have forced women to migrate using illegal measures which makes their situation more vulnerable. It also suggests that affirmative action such as to create more occupational opportunities and the equal distribution of resources to rural areas to address this issue is needed.

Exhaustion: Migrant mental health, gendered migration and workplace regime

AbstractThis article focuses on the mental health of female migrant workers in Italy. The multi‐method study involved a survey of 157 Moldovan migrant women employed in different jobs and 30 semi‐structured interviews with Moldovan female migrant domestic workers. Quantitative analysis demonstrated that Moldovan domestic workers are affected by poor mental health to a greater extent than Moldovan women employed in other jobs, and that the factors most associated with it were non‐standard working times and having migrated primarily for work reasons. Qualitative data showed how the strain resulting from demanding schedules was intertwined with being a single female labour migrant, whose experience was strongly marked by the gendered dimension of transnational motherhood and a loss of social status. The article concludes that the gendered migration regime and the gendered workplace regime constitute two intertwined and mutually reinforcing determinants of health.

Exploring the Intersection of Legal Regulations and Feminization of Migration: A Focus on Migrant Women Working in Domestic Services in Türkiye

One of the trends that have come to the fore with globalization is the increased visibility of women in migration. As the rate of women’s participation in the labor force through paid work has increased, their mobility from rural to urban areas or from one part of the world to another has also increased. In this process, also known as the feminization of migration, women have become geographically more mobile than ever before in history. With this process, women started to migrate independently from their family members across national borders to work in a variety of jobs, particularly domestic work and sex work. The diversion of domestic work (caring for the sick, children and elderly, cleaning, etc.) to women in poorer countries through the global division of labor has played an important role in this change. This division of labor, which arises from the combination of the gendered character of domestic work and cheap female labor, has necessitated the geographical mobility of poorer women from all over the world. As a result, women have also begun to engage in geographical mobility on a global scale. In addition to these reasons that push women to migrate, developments in destination countries that create demand for migrant women’s labor are also important. Today, almost every part of the world has become a destination point for women migrating for domestic work. Especially after the collapse of the Soviet Union, Türkiye has also become one of these target countries. However, migrant women have faced various problems in Türkiye, both due to deficiencies in existing regulations and political attitudes towards migrants. These women, most of whom work as domestic workers, have been at the center of problems arising from both the migration system and the specific conditions of domestic work. In this study, the problems faced by female migrant domestic workers in Türkiye are discussed within the aforementioned framework. In particular, the main axis of the discussion is how domestic workers are affected by legal regulations in Türkiye. The study interrogates how women’s migration to Türkiye has developed within the existing migration system and examines the migration experience of migrant women working as domestic workers in Türkiye.

Employment conditions and mental health of overseas female migrant domestic workers in Hong Kong: a parallel mediation analysis

BackgroundFemale migrant domestic workers (MDW), approximately 8.5 million globally, often live in their employer’s home under vulnerable conditions. In Hong Kong, MDWs currently comprise 5% of the population. This study was conducted to assess the association between employment conditions and mental health, and the mediating roles stress and job satisfaction have, among female MDWs in Hong Kong.MethodsParticipants completed an online cross-sectional survey. A total of 1,965 survey were collected between August 2020 and August 2021. Questions in the survey were related to MDWs background information, employment conditions, stress, job satisfaction, and two mental health outcomes: anxiety and depression. An employment conditions score was created to assess the cumulative effect poor employment conditions had on mental health. A multicategorical parallel mediation analysis was used to assess the direct effect employment conditions have on mental health and the indirect effects through stress and job satisfaction.ResultsOverall, 17.7% of MDWs were reported to be suffering from anxiety and 30.8% from depression. An increase in poor employment conditions was statistically associated with an increase in both outcomes, while stress levels and job satisfaction mediated this association.ConclusionsThe findings call for increased scrutiny of employment conditions and mental well-being of MDWs.

‘Lockdown Work’

This article explores domestic workers’ experiences of ‘lockdown work’, which refers to working conditions during the level 5 to level 3 lockdown period in South Africa during the Covid-19 pandemic. Drawing on in-depth interviews with female black African South African and African migrant domestic workers from Zimbabwe and Malawi, the article provides crucial insights into how the pandemic altered existing working conditions and employment relationships. We use the sociological concept ‘boundary work’ to illustrate the relational dynamic and consequence of social and physical distancing during the pandemic. We argue that social and physical distancing deepened the public-private divide in employers’ private households and domestic workers’ intimate workplaces. The findings show that domestic workers experienced limited or no control over decisions regarding Covid-19-related protocols in their workplace, intensified workloads without additional remuneration, and felt voiceless regarding working conditions because they feared losing their jobs. The experience of lockdown work highlighted domestic workers’ vulnerability because of the asymmetrical and intimate nature of domestic work under new management imperatives that positioned most domestic workers as a high-risk group or perceived carriers of Covid-19. We conclude that the experience of personalism/maternalism and distant hierarchy as forms of boundary work undermined domestic workers’ sense of dignity and employment rights.

Employment conditions and mental health of female migrant domestic workers in Hong Kong: a parallel mediation analysis

Employment conditions and mental health of female migrant domestic workers in Hong Kong: a parallel mediation analysis

Mapping and Measuring the Phenomenon of Precariousness in the Labour Market: Challenges and Implications

This research article presents an empirical model that takes economic vulnerability into consideration to measure and address the phenomenon of precarious work and precariousness. In order to achieve this, three satisfactory indicators were formulated, consisting of both individual and institutional levels and taking into account the country-specific relationships among the variables, depending on country-specific conditions. Based on this, the choice of homeownership is introduced instead of the eligibility for employment benefits. In this way, precarity has been examined as a condition in which precariousness and economic vulnerability intersect and interact. In Cyprus, 9.5% of the workers in Cyprus were classified as precarious, while 4.4% were classified as being in precarity (i.e., precarious and economically vulnerable). The empirical findings revealed that precariousness was related to gender, migration, and the employment sector, which is consistent with the well-known literature. One of the most noteworthy findings was the high number of female migrant domestic workers in Cyprus. In this study, new variables and novel empirical approaches were introduced into the discussion of precarious work and precariousness, which may eventually lead to new theoretical and policy avenues for reducing or eliminating this phenomenon.

Support or burden? Mental health and transnational family contact among female migrant domestic workers in Hong Kong

AbstractA large and increasing number of female migrant domestic workers has been recorded within the Asia‐Pacific region. Thanks to the development of communication technologies, these migrant women can maintain intimate relations with their family back home despite the distances separating them. However, there have been concerns recently about the effect of preserving close family contact on female migrant domestic workers' mental health. Using recently collected survey data on female migrant domestic workers in Hong Kong, our study finds that daily family communication with parents or partners brings a psychological burden, rather than support, for migrant domestic workers. In addition, the findings show the importance of the workplace environment in moderating the effect of regular family contact. Implications of our findings are discussed.

Hegemony of Saudi Arabia's Kafala System in The Relationship Between Employer and Indonesian Female Domestic Migrant Workers 2018-2020

This study describes the hegemony produced by the Saudi Arabian state through the kafala system in the relationship between employers and female migrant domestic workers from Indonesia. The kafala system creates many problems due to the structural dependence between domestic migrant workers and their employers, ranging from heavy workloads and irregular wages to restrictions on access to mobility. Employers as individual sponsors have a large dominance of power so that the working conditions for domestic migrant workers become unbalanced. This study is analyzed using Antonio Gramsci's hegemonic perspective with three indicators of understanding, namely the ruling class, defense of the domination of the ruling class, and the crisis of ruling class hegemony. This study was dissected using a qualitative critical approach. This study indicates that the hegemony in this research phenomenon belongs to a declining level of hegemony characterized by the potential for disintegration hidden beneath the surface. Various restrictive Saudi Arabian regulations hamper the awareness of civil society, which has been gradually awakened. The limitations of civil society on access to participatory democracy have resulted in mass resistance to the Kafala system not coming to the surface.

Sociopolitical development of female migrant domestic workers in Southern Spain: A qualitative study of a pathway against injustice

AbstractDomestic work is a sector characterized by various forms of injustice, prompting some women to embark on a pathway towards activism. Based on the Sociopolitical Development (SPD) framework, this study aims to explore female Latin American migrants' experiences of injustice in the domestic work sector in Spain and how they challenge them, particularly when they become involved in organized collective action. To this end, in‐depth interviews were conducted with 11 women of Latin American origin who actively participate in the Association of Domestic Workers of Seville. The qualitative analysis found that being a domestic worker, having experiences of exploitation, discovering rights, receiving rights training, sharing stories of oppression, and engaging in sociopolitical actions are key experiences in guiding migrant women from the acritical and adaptive stages of SPD towards the pre‐critical, critical, and liberation ones. Knowledge about these significant life‐changing events may be useful for designing interventions aimed at fostering different ways in which oppressed groups can challenge injustice.

The protection and empowerment of Indonesian female migrant domestic workers: Proposals from a multi-stage analysis

ABSTRACT Migrant female domestic workers are subject to an overarching system of isolation, subordination, and exploitation due to the intersection of their gender, low education, and foreign-migrant status. This is a study of Indonesian female migrant domestic workers and their actual experiences in the six distinct stages of their journey that have not been previously acknowledged. This enabled us to uncover the distinct exploitation and abuse problems they encountered at different stages and propose how these problems may be addressed, apart from formulating proposals for fundamental reform. We conclude by identifying ways in which the problems can be mitigated, or even fully addressed in some cases, through more active intervention by their home country.

Forced returnee Bangladeshi female migrant domestic workers and their social reintegration experiences

Bangladeshi female migrant domestic workers are often forcefully repatriated from the Middle East before concluding their working tenure due to the various difficulties and challenges they face while working there. However, they face many new challenges in reintegrating with family and society after returning home. This article explores the experiences and challenges faced by forced returnee Bangladeshi female migrant domestic workers during social reintegration. It also examines the experiences of those returned migrant women who were not returned forcibly to provide a better idea of the reintegration. The questions of how and why forced returnee Bangladeshi female migrant domestic workers face challenges and problems in their social reintegration are addressed in this study. This article uses the qualitative techniques of data collection and the analysis is based on an in-depth interview of 28 respondents among different categories of participants. This article finds that the social reintegration experiences of forced returnee female migrant domestic workers are often stressful and difficult due to the issues of changed social perceptions towards them, psychological changes in the returnees themselves, challenges in intimate partnerships, and economic factors in the case of relationship rebuilding with friends, family and society. Finally, the article outlines some policy implications regarding the female migration of Bangladesh.

A Qualitative Study of Female Migrant Domestic Workers’ Experiences of and Responses to Work-Based Sexual Violence in Cyprus

Domestic workers face increased risk for sexual harassment and assault in the workplace but are often reluctant to disclose abuse or seek retribution. We report on a study looking at migrant domestic workers’ responses to sexual violence, reasons behind their responses, and factors enhancing or diminishing vulnerability to abuse. We carried out qualitative, in-depth, individual and group interviews with 15 female domestic workers from the Philippines and Sri Lanka working in the Republic of Cyprus. Descriptive thematic analysis was used to analyse data using QSR NVivo 10.0. Sexual violence against migrant domestic workers was reported to be rampant, particularly among women living with their employer. Perpetrators took advantage of women’s precarious legal, social, and economic circumstances to coerce women into a sexual relationship. All participants reported taking action to stop attacks despite the significant barriers they faced: racism and discrimination, social isolation, and hostile legal, labour, and immigration systems. Fear of losing their job, being deported, and facing racism and discrimination from the police were the biggest barriers to seeking retribution. Access to informational, e.g., legal, practical, and emotional support, facilitated positive outcomes following abuse, such as finding a new employer. Systemic racism, hostile labour and immigration systems, and lack of support increase risk of sexual violence and place barriers against accessing safe working spaces, protection, and justice. Women need to be informed of the risks involved in domestic work and empowered to identify abuse and access help and support when needed.

Migrant Domestic Workers’ Experiences of Sexual Harassment: A Qualitative Study in Four EU Countries

Sexual harassment against female migrant domestic workers is a public health problem, which remains hidden and largely underreported. The current paper presents the results of a qualitative research study on sexually victimized migrant domestic workers in four European countries (Austria, Cyprus, Greece, and Sweden). The study aimed at exploring the profile and experiences of victimised individuals. Data were gathered via 66 semi-structured interviews with victimised female migrant domestic workers. Key findings of the current study indicate that the victims: (a) were usually undocumented and had low local language skills; (b) identified domestic work as the only way into the labour market; (c) suffered primarily psychological, economic, and social consequences; (d) had poor social support networks; (e) were poorly connected to governmental support services. This is the first study to explore this hidden problem via direct contact with victims. Addressing barriers of migrants’ social integration seems important. Better regulation and monitoring of this low-skilled occupation could minimise risks for vulnerable employees.

Alienation and Hopes in Indonesian Migrant Worker Literature Work

Abstract: Female Indonesian migrant domestic workers (DMWs) often get a negative predicate both in Indonesia and in destination countries. For example, DMWs in Singapore are treated unequally by Singaporean society, in Indonesia, as well, their work is seen as a lowly job. They can be categorized as a marginal group. Marginals are marginalized people whose rights are ruled out by people that have power. Hence, they find it difficult to adapt to their environment and they are always suppressed. The circumstances lead to the feeling of alienation for DMWs. The alienation they have experienced is often ignored as a reality of the life of migrant workers. This study takes the object of poetry by Female Indonesian DMWs in Singapore. It explores how marginalization and alienation are expressed in literary work by female domestic migrant workers. This study, also analyzes how the expression of literary work can be functioned as a medium to voice alienation and to overcome its problem. This research used textual analysis, including the application of semiotics and narratology to see the marginalization and alienation faced by the migrant workers which are represented through a literary work. As complementary data, virtual interviews with the author of poetry was conducted.

Psychosocial benefits and costs of activism among female migrant domestic workers in southern Spain.

Economic migrant women often experience oppressive living and working conditions in the receiving societies. Activism is a liberatory behavior these women may employ to transform such situations. This study explores the activism experience of female migrant domestic workers from Latin America settled in southern Spain, in terms of its psychosocial benefits and costs. A purposeful sample of eleven activist migrant women engaged in a grassroots organization of domestic workers and eight members of social organizations supporting their activities were interviewed in-depth individually. After a qualitative content analysis approach to the data, the study presents activism as a community engagement behavior with benefits such as the strengthening of social ties, sense of community, opportunities for sharing stories of oppression, and psychological empowerment. Activism also emerged as a demanding activity requiring high investments in time by activists and producing interpersonal conflicts, hopelessness, and burnout in some cases. Such costs may pose limits to its potential to produce well-being and liberation, implying challenges for research, intervention, and activism sustainability.