Female Migrant Domestic Workers Research Articles

Exploring the Intersection of Legal Regulations and Feminization of Migration: A Focus on Migrant Women Working in Domestic Services in Türkiye

One of the trends that have come to the fore with globalization is the increased visibility of women in migration. As the rate of women’s participation in the labor force through paid work has increased, their mobility from rural to urban areas or from one part of the world to another has also increased. In this process, also known as the feminization of migration, women have become geographically more mobile than ever before in history. With this process, women started to migrate independently from their family members across national borders to work in a variety of jobs, particularly domestic work and sex work. The diversion of domestic work (caring for the sick, children and elderly, cleaning, etc.) to women in poorer countries through the global division of labor has played an important role in this change. This division of labor, which arises from the combination of the gendered character of domestic work and cheap female labor, has necessitated the geographical mobility of poorer women from all over the world. As a result, women have also begun to engage in geographical mobility on a global scale. In addition to these reasons that push women to migrate, developments in destination countries that create demand for migrant women’s labor are also important. Today, almost every part of the world has become a destination point for women migrating for domestic work. Especially after the collapse of the Soviet Union, Türkiye has also become one of these target countries. However, migrant women have faced various problems in Türkiye, both due to deficiencies in existing regulations and political attitudes towards migrants. These women, most of whom work as domestic workers, have been at the center of problems arising from both the migration system and the specific conditions of domestic work. In this study, the problems faced by female migrant domestic workers in Türkiye are discussed within the aforementioned framework. In particular, the main axis of the discussion is how domestic workers are affected by legal regulations in Türkiye. The study interrogates how women’s migration to Türkiye has developed within the existing migration system and examines the migration experience of migrant women working as domestic workers in Türkiye.

Employment conditions and mental health of overseas female migrant domestic workers in Hong Kong: a parallel mediation analysis

BackgroundFemale migrant domestic workers (MDW), approximately 8.5 million globally, often live in their employer’s home under vulnerable conditions. In Hong Kong, MDWs currently comprise 5% of the population. This study was conducted to assess the association between employment conditions and mental health, and the mediating roles stress and job satisfaction have, among female MDWs in Hong Kong.MethodsParticipants completed an online cross-sectional survey. A total of 1,965 survey were collected between August 2020 and August 2021. Questions in the survey were related to MDWs background information, employment conditions, stress, job satisfaction, and two mental health outcomes: anxiety and depression. An employment conditions score was created to assess the cumulative effect poor employment conditions had on mental health. A multicategorical parallel mediation analysis was used to assess the direct effect employment conditions have on mental health and the indirect effects through stress and job satisfaction.ResultsOverall, 17.7% of MDWs were reported to be suffering from anxiety and 30.8% from depression. An increase in poor employment conditions was statistically associated with an increase in both outcomes, while stress levels and job satisfaction mediated this association.ConclusionsThe findings call for increased scrutiny of employment conditions and mental well-being of MDWs.

‘Lockdown Work’

This article explores domestic workers’ experiences of ‘lockdown work’, which refers to working conditions during the level 5 to level 3 lockdown period in South Africa during the Covid-19 pandemic. Drawing on in-depth interviews with female black African South African and African migrant domestic workers from Zimbabwe and Malawi, the article provides crucial insights into how the pandemic altered existing working conditions and employment relationships. We use the sociological concept ‘boundary work’ to illustrate the relational dynamic and consequence of social and physical distancing during the pandemic. We argue that social and physical distancing deepened the public-private divide in employers’ private households and domestic workers’ intimate workplaces. The findings show that domestic workers experienced limited or no control over decisions regarding Covid-19-related protocols in their workplace, intensified workloads without additional remuneration, and felt voiceless regarding working conditions because they feared losing their jobs. The experience of lockdown work highlighted domestic workers’ vulnerability because of the asymmetrical and intimate nature of domestic work under new management imperatives that positioned most domestic workers as a high-risk group or perceived carriers of Covid-19. We conclude that the experience of personalism/maternalism and distant hierarchy as forms of boundary work undermined domestic workers’ sense of dignity and employment rights.

Employment conditions and mental health of female migrant domestic workers in Hong Kong: a parallel mediation analysis

Employment conditions and mental health of female migrant domestic workers in Hong Kong: a parallel mediation analysis

Mapping and Measuring the Phenomenon of Precariousness in the Labour Market: Challenges and Implications

This research article presents an empirical model that takes economic vulnerability into consideration to measure and address the phenomenon of precarious work and precariousness. In order to achieve this, three satisfactory indicators were formulated, consisting of both individual and institutional levels and taking into account the country-specific relationships among the variables, depending on country-specific conditions. Based on this, the choice of homeownership is introduced instead of the eligibility for employment benefits. In this way, precarity has been examined as a condition in which precariousness and economic vulnerability intersect and interact. In Cyprus, 9.5% of the workers in Cyprus were classified as precarious, while 4.4% were classified as being in precarity (i.e., precarious and economically vulnerable). The empirical findings revealed that precariousness was related to gender, migration, and the employment sector, which is consistent with the well-known literature. One of the most noteworthy findings was the high number of female migrant domestic workers in Cyprus. In this study, new variables and novel empirical approaches were introduced into the discussion of precarious work and precariousness, which may eventually lead to new theoretical and policy avenues for reducing or eliminating this phenomenon.

Support or burden? Mental health and transnational family contact among female migrant domestic workers in Hong Kong

AbstractA large and increasing number of female migrant domestic workers has been recorded within the Asia‐Pacific region. Thanks to the development of communication technologies, these migrant women can maintain intimate relations with their family back home despite the distances separating them. However, there have been concerns recently about the effect of preserving close family contact on female migrant domestic workers' mental health. Using recently collected survey data on female migrant domestic workers in Hong Kong, our study finds that daily family communication with parents or partners brings a psychological burden, rather than support, for migrant domestic workers. In addition, the findings show the importance of the workplace environment in moderating the effect of regular family contact. Implications of our findings are discussed.

Hegemony of Saudi Arabia's Kafala System in The Relationship Between Employer and Indonesian Female Domestic Migrant Workers 2018-2020

This study describes the hegemony produced by the Saudi Arabian state through the kafala system in the relationship between employers and female migrant domestic workers from Indonesia. The kafala system creates many problems due to the structural dependence between domestic migrant workers and their employers, ranging from heavy workloads and irregular wages to restrictions on access to mobility. Employers as individual sponsors have a large dominance of power so that the working conditions for domestic migrant workers become unbalanced. This study is analyzed using Antonio Gramsci's hegemonic perspective with three indicators of understanding, namely the ruling class, defense of the domination of the ruling class, and the crisis of ruling class hegemony. This study was dissected using a qualitative critical approach. This study indicates that the hegemony in this research phenomenon belongs to a declining level of hegemony characterized by the potential for disintegration hidden beneath the surface. Various restrictive Saudi Arabian regulations hamper the awareness of civil society, which has been gradually awakened. The limitations of civil society on access to participatory democracy have resulted in mass resistance to the Kafala system not coming to the surface.

Sociopolitical development of female migrant domestic workers in Southern Spain: A qualitative study of a pathway against injustice

AbstractDomestic work is a sector characterized by various forms of injustice, prompting some women to embark on a pathway towards activism. Based on the Sociopolitical Development (SPD) framework, this study aims to explore female Latin American migrants' experiences of injustice in the domestic work sector in Spain and how they challenge them, particularly when they become involved in organized collective action. To this end, in‐depth interviews were conducted with 11 women of Latin American origin who actively participate in the Association of Domestic Workers of Seville. The qualitative analysis found that being a domestic worker, having experiences of exploitation, discovering rights, receiving rights training, sharing stories of oppression, and engaging in sociopolitical actions are key experiences in guiding migrant women from the acritical and adaptive stages of SPD towards the pre‐critical, critical, and liberation ones. Knowledge about these significant life‐changing events may be useful for designing interventions aimed at fostering different ways in which oppressed groups can challenge injustice.

The protection and empowerment of Indonesian female migrant domestic workers: Proposals from a multi-stage analysis

ABSTRACT Migrant female domestic workers are subject to an overarching system of isolation, subordination, and exploitation due to the intersection of their gender, low education, and foreign-migrant status. This is a study of Indonesian female migrant domestic workers and their actual experiences in the six distinct stages of their journey that have not been previously acknowledged. This enabled us to uncover the distinct exploitation and abuse problems they encountered at different stages and propose how these problems may be addressed, apart from formulating proposals for fundamental reform. We conclude by identifying ways in which the problems can be mitigated, or even fully addressed in some cases, through more active intervention by their home country.

Forced returnee Bangladeshi female migrant domestic workers and their social reintegration experiences

Bangladeshi female migrant domestic workers are often forcefully repatriated from the Middle East before concluding their working tenure due to the various difficulties and challenges they face while working there. However, they face many new challenges in reintegrating with family and society after returning home. This article explores the experiences and challenges faced by forced returnee Bangladeshi female migrant domestic workers during social reintegration. It also examines the experiences of those returned migrant women who were not returned forcibly to provide a better idea of the reintegration. The questions of how and why forced returnee Bangladeshi female migrant domestic workers face challenges and problems in their social reintegration are addressed in this study. This article uses the qualitative techniques of data collection and the analysis is based on an in-depth interview of 28 respondents among different categories of participants. This article finds that the social reintegration experiences of forced returnee female migrant domestic workers are often stressful and difficult due to the issues of changed social perceptions towards them, psychological changes in the returnees themselves, challenges in intimate partnerships, and economic factors in the case of relationship rebuilding with friends, family and society. Finally, the article outlines some policy implications regarding the female migration of Bangladesh.

A Qualitative Study of Female Migrant Domestic Workers’ Experiences of and Responses to Work-Based Sexual Violence in Cyprus

Domestic workers face increased risk for sexual harassment and assault in the workplace but are often reluctant to disclose abuse or seek retribution. We report on a study looking at migrant domestic workers’ responses to sexual violence, reasons behind their responses, and factors enhancing or diminishing vulnerability to abuse. We carried out qualitative, in-depth, individual and group interviews with 15 female domestic workers from the Philippines and Sri Lanka working in the Republic of Cyprus. Descriptive thematic analysis was used to analyse data using QSR NVivo 10.0. Sexual violence against migrant domestic workers was reported to be rampant, particularly among women living with their employer. Perpetrators took advantage of women’s precarious legal, social, and economic circumstances to coerce women into a sexual relationship. All participants reported taking action to stop attacks despite the significant barriers they faced: racism and discrimination, social isolation, and hostile legal, labour, and immigration systems. Fear of losing their job, being deported, and facing racism and discrimination from the police were the biggest barriers to seeking retribution. Access to informational, e.g., legal, practical, and emotional support, facilitated positive outcomes following abuse, such as finding a new employer. Systemic racism, hostile labour and immigration systems, and lack of support increase risk of sexual violence and place barriers against accessing safe working spaces, protection, and justice. Women need to be informed of the risks involved in domestic work and empowered to identify abuse and access help and support when needed.

Migrant Domestic Workers’ Experiences of Sexual Harassment: A Qualitative Study in Four EU Countries

Sexual harassment against female migrant domestic workers is a public health problem, which remains hidden and largely underreported. The current paper presents the results of a qualitative research study on sexually victimized migrant domestic workers in four European countries (Austria, Cyprus, Greece, and Sweden). The study aimed at exploring the profile and experiences of victimised individuals. Data were gathered via 66 semi-structured interviews with victimised female migrant domestic workers. Key findings of the current study indicate that the victims: (a) were usually undocumented and had low local language skills; (b) identified domestic work as the only way into the labour market; (c) suffered primarily psychological, economic, and social consequences; (d) had poor social support networks; (e) were poorly connected to governmental support services. This is the first study to explore this hidden problem via direct contact with victims. Addressing barriers of migrants’ social integration seems important. Better regulation and monitoring of this low-skilled occupation could minimise risks for vulnerable employees.

Alienation and Hopes in Indonesian Migrant Worker Literature Work

Abstract: Female Indonesian migrant domestic workers (DMWs) often get a negative predicate both in Indonesia and in destination countries. For example, DMWs in Singapore are treated unequally by Singaporean society, in Indonesia, as well, their work is seen as a lowly job. They can be categorized as a marginal group. Marginals are marginalized people whose rights are ruled out by people that have power. Hence, they find it difficult to adapt to their environment and they are always suppressed. The circumstances lead to the feeling of alienation for DMWs. The alienation they have experienced is often ignored as a reality of the life of migrant workers. This study takes the object of poetry by Female Indonesian DMWs in Singapore. It explores how marginalization and alienation are expressed in literary work by female domestic migrant workers. This study, also analyzes how the expression of literary work can be functioned as a medium to voice alienation and to overcome its problem. This research used textual analysis, including the application of semiotics and narratology to see the marginalization and alienation faced by the migrant workers which are represented through a literary work. As complementary data, virtual interviews with the author of poetry was conducted.

Psychosocial benefits and costs of activism among female migrant domestic workers in southern Spain.

Economic migrant women often experience oppressive living and working conditions in the receiving societies. Activism is a liberatory behavior these women may employ to transform such situations. This study explores the activism experience of female migrant domestic workers from Latin America settled in southern Spain, in terms of its psychosocial benefits and costs. A purposeful sample of eleven activist migrant women engaged in a grassroots organization of domestic workers and eight members of social organizations supporting their activities were interviewed in-depth individually. After a qualitative content analysis approach to the data, the study presents activism as a community engagement behavior with benefits such as the strengthening of social ties, sense of community, opportunities for sharing stories of oppression, and psychological empowerment. Activism also emerged as a demanding activity requiring high investments in time by activists and producing interpersonal conflicts, hopelessness, and burnout in some cases. Such costs may pose limits to its potential to produce well-being and liberation, implying challenges for research, intervention, and activism sustainability.

COVID-19 and Decent Work: Online Media Coverage on Indonesian Female Migrant Domestic Workers in Malaysia and Taiwan

espanolEntre todas las demas industrias, la propagacion de COVID-19 tambien afecto el trabajo formal de diferentes industrias, incluidos los trabajadores domesticos en las casas de los empleadores. El objetivo principal de este estudio fue analizar el fenomeno de como las trabajadoras domesticas migrantes indonesias de tiempo completo, en Malasia y Taiwan, hicieron frente a las condiciones de empleo inconvenientes durante la pandemia. Este articulo empleo un enfoque cualitativo explicativo. Las fuentes de datos para esta investigacion fueron datos secundarios, que en su mayoria examinaron los datos disponibles en los medios en linea relacionados con cuatro dimensiones del trabajo decente que consisten en 1) seguridad en el empleo (perder un trabajo), 2) proteccion (trabajadores legalmente excluidos / no regulados), 3) vulnerabilidad (maltrato fisico y mental), y 4) ingresos (salario bajo). Los datos seleccionados de los medios en linea nacionales e internacionales se analizaron utilizando el software NVivo 12+ para correlacionar entre el COVID-19 y las condiciones laborales de los trabajadores indonesios en Malasia y Taiwan. Esta investigacion revela que las trabajadoras domesticas migrantes indonesias a tiempo completo, que viven temporalmente en las casas de los empleadores, se han enfrentado a condiciones laborales inconvenientes durante la pandemia. Los hallazgos han argumentado que COVID-19 causo inseguridad laboral al limitar las posibles trabajadoras domesticas extranjeras para encontrar un nuevo trabajo; Ademas, tambien planteo la proteccion insuficiente que resulto en una mayor vulnerabilidad. En terminos de ingresos, COVID-19 tambien contribuyo a la deduccion salarial para las trabajadoras en Malasia y Taiwan. EnglishAmong all other industries, the spread of COVID-19 also affected the formal labor of different industries including domestic workers at employers’ houses. The main purpose of this study was to analyze the phenomenon that how did full-time Indonesian female migrant domestic workers, in Malaysia and Taiwan, coped with inconvenient employment conditions during the pandemic. This article employed an explanatory qualitative approach. The data sources for this research were from secondary data, which mostly examined data available on online media related to four dimensions of decent work consisting of 1) employment security (losing a job), 2) protection (legally excluded/unregulated workers), 3) vulnerability (physical and mental abuse), and 4) income (low salary). The selected data from both national and international online media were analyzed by using NVivo 12+ software to correlate between the COVID-19 and working conditions of the Indonesian workers in Malaysia and Taiwan. This research reveals that full-time Indonesian female migrant domestic workers, temporarily living in employers’ houses, have coped with inconvenient employment conditions during the pandemic. The findings have argued that COVID-19 caused employment insecurity by limiting potential foreign female domestic workers to find a new job; further, it also raised the insufficient protection that resulted into more vulnerability. In terms of income, COVID-19 also contributed to salary deduction for female workers in Malaysia and Taiwan.

The “Migration” of Terrorist Actors in Indonesia: From Male-Dominated Terrorist to the Emergence of Female Terrorist Migrant Domestic Workers

The ISIS group’s declaration in 2014, has inspired female extremists from various countries to join the terrorist group. At the end of 2016, two women were arrested by the Indonesian police for planning terror attacks in two different places. Both are former migrant domestic workers who returned from Hong Kong. This article investigates why women join terrorist groups, why male-dominated terrorist groups recruit women and what makes female migrant domestic workers who return to Indonesia as extremists willing to make a significant contribution to the terrorism movement in Indonesia. This research’s data collection technique is qualitative data collection, and document-based research through literature studies. This article utilizes Quintan Wiktorowicz’s three radicalisation concept phases: cognitive opening, religious seeking and socialisation. This study found that at least four reasons women become extremists, namely personal complaints, influence from family, relatives or lovers, ideological perceptions, and media use, facilitate the radicalisation process. Furthermore, strategic interests seem to be the answer to why terror groups involve women to achieve their goals. The acceptance of terrorist groups to involve women can be the reason why women migrant domestic workers are willing to make an immense contribution to terrorist groups. Their enthusiasm, financial capacity and international experience are expected to strengthen the terror movement in Indonesia. Both create a “mutually reinforcing” relationship that benefits both parties. Further research is needed with a sample of ordinary female extremists outside migrant domestic workers as a comparison to examine women’s motivations and group decisions to include these women in terrorist activities.

Structural validation of The Patient Health Questionnaire-9 (PHQ-9) among Filipina and Indonesian female migrant domestic workers in Macao: STRUCTURAL VALIDATION OF PHQ-9

Within diverse global populations, validated tools are needed to assess common mental disorders. The Patient Health Questionnaire-9 (PHQ-9) is one of the most commonly used depression screeners. However, the PHQ-9 has not been structurally validated among female migrant domestic workers (MDWs). Female MDWs constitute a population numbering 11.5 million, and commonly report depression. This study aimed to structurally validate the PHQ-9 among Filipina and Indonesian female MDWs in Macao Special Administrative Region of China. Participants were recruited using respondent driven sampling. Participants were adult female MDWs from The Philippines (N=1375) or Indonesia (N=367) and legally working in Macao. We used confirmatory factor analysis (CFA) to test five structural models of depression using all PHQ-9 items with the Filipina and Indonesian samples. We applied multi-group CFA to test measurement invariance across samples. A two-factor (cognitive/affective, somatic) model yielded the best fit within both samples, and the multi-group CFA demonstrated invariance across samples. The two-factor model best represents the factor structure of the PHQ-9 among Filipina and Indonesian female MDWs.

A Comparative Analysis of the Femicide of Migrant Domestic Workers in Bahrain and Lebanon

Gender-based violence (GBV) is becoming a major topic of criminological concern. This article examines the factors contributing to the abuse of female Migrant Domestic Workers (MDWs) by their employers in two Middle Eastern countries, Lebanon and Bahrain. It pinpoints the law as the structure that maintains the slavery-like conditions that facilitate the systematic violence towards MDWs in Bahrain and Lebanon. It also looks at how processes of criminalisation cement MDWs in their precarious positions, subject to un-investigated femicide. Therefore, this article proposes to view femicide as a state of existence resulting from a wider societal structure as opposed to a single act condensed in time and space. The article adopts an intersectional approach to GBV, which draws attention to the states’ role in facilitating the exploitation of MDWs. It also calls for the inclusion of MDWs in the Lebanese and Bahraini labour laws. By acknowledging the multi-dimensional abuse which ultimately results in the death of MDWs, the article concludes that the governments of the receiving and sending countries must do more to protect their most marginalised subjects. Moreover, criminologists should include MDWs as a criminalised group in more of their academic endeavours.

Validation of Obesity Status Based on Self-Reported Data among Filipina and Indonesian Female Migrant Domestic Workers in Macao (SAR), China.

Background: Migrant domestic workers are at high risk of overweight and obesity. It is crucial to assess the prevalence of obesity among this migrant population, for surveillance and intervention. Self-reported height and weight are commonly used to derive body mass index (BMI) and assess the prevalence of obesity. The accuracy of BMI from self-reported height and weight in migrant populations remains unknown. The aim of this study was to assess the accuracy of BMI from self-reported measures and identify the optimal adjustment to be made to overweight and obesity cut-off points when using self-reported body mass index among migrant workers. Methods: Self-reported and objectively measured height and weight were obtained from 1388 female Filipina domestic workers and 369 female Indonesian domestic workers recruited using respondent-driven sampling between November 2016 and August 2017. Self-reported BMI (based on self-reported height and weight) and measured BMI (based on objectively measured height and weight) were calculated as weight in kilograms divided by the square of height in meters for all participants (kg/m2). Results: BMI derived from self-reported height and weight was underestimated for both Filipina (z = −27.5, p < 0.001) and Indonesian (z = −9.9, p < 0.001) participants. Applying the gold standard of Asian BMI cut-off points to self-reported BMI, the sensitivity in identifying overweight or obesity was 64.4% for Filipina participants and 78.6% for Indonesian participants and the specificity was 97.9% for Filipina participants and 93.8% for Indonesian participants for overweight or obesity. When self-reported measures were used, the receiver operator characteristic (ROC) curves and the corresponding area under the curve (AUC) indicated optimal cut-off points of 22.0 kg/m2 and 22.3 kg/m2 for Filipina and female Indonesian participants for overweight or obesity. Conclusions: Although BMI derived from self-reported height and weight allows for quick and low-cost obesity screening, a considerable underestimation of overweight or obesity prevalence was observed in Filipina and female Indonesian migrant domestic workers in Macao (Special Administrative Region, SAR), China. With the best compromise between sensitivity and specificity, the new cut-off points can be used in future studies to identify overweight or obesity in these two populations using self-reported height and weight.

Indonesian migrant workers in Hong Kong: Smartphone culture and activism

This article focuses on contemporary smartphone culture and activism performed by female Indonesian migrant domestic workers in Hong Kong. There are around 330.000 migrant workers in Hong Kong, and wherein 150.000 originated from Indonesia. Most of the Indonesian migrant workers in Hong Kong work in the domestic sectors: housemaid, babysitter, and career. They are obliged to live with their employer and start working from five mornings until late at night for six days a week. The smartphone is their primary medium in keeping a connection with friends and families back home and reduces social isolation. Interestingly, Indonesian migrant workers also use smartphones for activism to support migrant workers’ rights issues. Despite the isolation issues and the social limitations experienced by the Indonesian migrant workers’, this article aims to explore the following questions: how is smartphone culture developed in Indonesian migrant workers’ communication activities in Hong Kong? How is the smartphone, in particular, used as the medium for activism? Using the netnography method, this research explores the smartphone culture and activism performed by Indonesian migrant workers’ in their online routine. Smartphone usage has become an interesting phenomenon where this device has changed the cultural habits and further forms a new cultural pattern. Social media platforms and chat applications on smartphones have facilitated Indonesian migrant workers’ more comprehensive access to information. It is found that social media access is essential for Indonesian migrant workers to ease loneliness and further used as their medium of existence in the virtual world. Furthermore, they also create virtual identities through social media, share experiences and views through online platforms, and organize protests or other forms of activism. Sulistyaningsih’s case is a clear example of how communication access was crucial for Indonesian migrant workers at a time of danger. The diverse forms of communication technology have allowed them to create compelling messages. This activity provides evidence that Indonesian migrant workers still can be creative despite their long working hours.