Female Leopard Research Articles

New record of strawberry leopard (Panthera pardus) in Selous Game Reserve, Tanzania.

Strawberry or red leopards are a rare colour morph of leopard (Panthera pardus) characterised by spot markings that are red or brown instead of black, thought to be a result of a mutation in the tyrosinase-related protein (TYRP1) gene. We report the first record of this phenotype on the African continent outside of South Africa, from Selous Game Reserve in southern Tanzania. One female leopard with strawberry colouration was documented out of 373 individual leopards (0.3%) identified through camera trap surveys conducted from 2020 to 2022 over a combined area of more than 4600 km2 in the Nyerere-Selous landscape.

Determination of a plasma retinol reference interval in leopard geckos (Eublepharis macularius)

BackgroundLeopard geckos (Eublepharis macularius) are a popular captive bred species of reptile in the exotic pet trade that are commonly seen for clinical presentations consistent with hypovitaminosis A. There has been a lack of antemortem diagnostics available for minimally invasive and appropriate diagnosis of this disease. Reference intervals for retinol have not been published or validated in leopard geckos or any closely related species. MethodsPlasma, with a sample volume of only 50 µl, from 40 healthy captive bred leopard geckos, 20 males and 20 females were analyzed using ultra-high-performance liquid chromatography with tandem mass spectrometry (UPLC-MS/MS) to determine plasma retinol concentrations. ResultsUsing UPLC/MS analysis data was normally distributed and a reference interval for plasma retinol in the leopard gecko was 0.06 to 0.55µg/mL (0.01–0.08µmol/L). A mean of 0.31µg/mL with a lower limit 95% confidence interval being 0.03 to 0.10 µg/mL and upper limit of 0.52 to 0.59 µg/mL. No significant variations of plasma retinol were found based on gecko color morph, age or weight. Female leopard geckos had a slightly higher mean plasma retinol compared to males, but was not significantly different. Conclusions and clinical relevanceThis study will allow veterinary clinicians to better diagnose and treat hypovitaminosis A and to provide advice on dietary supplementation and dietary improvement for the leopard gecko and possibly other gecko species as well. In addition, these values can be used to design and evaluate other studies for nutritional needs of this species. Limitations of this study include only a single season of collection, no same time comparison to liver values, and the evaluation of only captive bred individuals.

Plasticity in the morphometrics and movements of an Antarctic apex predator, the leopard seal

Animals that display plasticity in behavioral, ecological, and morphological traits are better poised to cope with environmental disturbances. Here, we examined individual plasticity and intraspecific variation in the morphometrics, movement patterns, and dive behavior of an enigmatic apex predator, the leopard seal (Hydrurga leptonyx). Satellite/GPS tags and time-depth recorders were deployed on 22 leopard seals off the Western Antarctic Peninsula. Adult female leopard seals were significantly larger (454±59 kg) and longer (302±11 cm) than adult males (302±22 kg, 276±11 cm). As females were 50% larger than their male counterparts, leopard seals are therefore one of the most extreme examples of female-biased sexual size dimorphism in marine mammals. Female leopard seals also spent more time hauled-out on land and ice than males. In the austral spring/summer, three adult female leopard seals hauled-out on ice for 10+ days, which likely represent the first satellite tracks of parturition and lactation for the species. While we found sex-based differences in morphometrics and haul-out durations, other variables, including maximum distance traveled and dive parameters, did not vary by sex. Regardless of sex, some leopard seals remained in near-shore habitats, traveling less than 50 kilometers, while other leopard seals traveled up to 1,700 kilometers away from the tagging location. Overall, leopard seals were short (3.0±0.7 min) and shallow (29±8 m) divers. However, within this general pattern, some individual leopard seals primarily used short, shallow dives, while others switched between short, shallow dives and long, deep dives. We also recorded the single deepest and longest dive made by any leopard seal—1, 256 meters for 25 minutes. Together, our results showcased high plasticity among leopard seals tagged in a single location. These flexible behaviors and traits may offer leopard seals, an ice-associated apex predator, resilience to the rapidly changing Southern Ocean.

Leopard Panthera pardus camera trap surveys in the arid environments of northern Namibia

In Namibia, leopards (Panthera pardus) are widely distributed, used commercially as trophy animals and are often persecuted for perceived or real predation on livestock and valuable game species outside protected areas. Therefore, leopard populations living in protected areas might be important source populations and for maintaining connectivity. Little data on their population sizes and densities are available from the northern part of the country, particularly from protected areas. Here, we estimated leopard densities using a spatial capture–recapture approach in northern Namibia: (i) the Khaudum National Park (KNP) in north-east Namibia with an annual average rainfall of 450 mm and (ii) the Lower Hoanib River (LHR) in north-west Namibia with an annual average rainfall of 25 mm. With an effort of 2430 and 2074 camera trap nights in the KNP and LHR, respectively, 11 adult female and six adult male leopards were identified in the KNP, whilst only one adult female leopard was detected once in the LHR. For the KNP, a maximum likelihood approach (using the package SECR) revealed a density estimate of 2.74 leopards/100 km2, whereas a Bayesian approach (using the package SPACECAP) revealed a density estimate of 1.83 leopards/100 km2. For the LHR, no density estimate could be determined and it is suggested that the leopard density in such an arid environment is low. These are the first leopard density estimates based on camera trap surveys provided for these protected areas and thus of importance for further monitoring programs to understand leopard population dynamics. We discuss our findings with current habitat changes and conservation measures in both study areas.

Big competition for small spots? Conspecific density drives home range size in male and female leopards

AbstractVariation in home range size exists among and within wildlife populations. Home range size variation may be driven by both intrinsic and extrinsic factors, including sex, food and reproductive resources, density and competition. In this study, we investigated the sex‐specific impacts of prey and reproductive resources, conspecific density and competition on leopard Panthera pardus home range size at two spatio‐temporal scales in the Sabi Sand Game Reserve, South Africa. Male leopard home ranges were more than twice the size of those of females, in line with expectations for a solitary, polygamous species. Both male and female leopard space‐use were primarily driven by short‐term changes in intra‐sexual conspecific density. Females were influenced by both short and long‐term drivers, with long‐term prey availability (home range and core) and refugia (core) further impacting size. Males were almost exclusively influenced by short‐term drivers; home range size was further impacted by short‐term changes in female leopard and prey density, and age. Long‐term prey availability contributed to male leopard core size. The difference in impact of short‐ and long‐term drivers between the sexes likely relates to tenure expectations; males may be forced out of their territories at any time and should therefore optimize their space‐use based on present conditions. Female leopards, however, must secure a home range that maximizes their reproductive success in the short‐ and long‐term in order to raise cubs to independence. Our findings challenge expectations that space‐use is primarily resource‐driven and demonstrate the critical role of social factors in saturated populations of solitary species. Furthermore, we illustrate the importance of considering temporally variable factors across different timescales to fully understand their impact on mammalian spatial organization.

Intraspecific interactions in a high-density leopard population.

Although less studied than interspecific interactions, interactions among members of the same species can influence space use and temporal activity. Using techniques commonly applied to the analysis of interspecific interactions—multispecies occupancy modeling and the analysis of temporal activity patterns—we studied intraspecific interactions within a high‐density population of Persian leopards (Panthera pardus saxicolor) in Tandoureh National Park, northeastern Iran. Using camera‐trap data, we investigated spatiotemporal interactions between male leopards, lone female leopards, and families (cubs/females with cubs). While we hypothesized that male and female leopards would display different temporal activity patterns, we did not predict spatial avoidance between these groups. We also predicted that leopard families would exhibit spatiotemporal avoidance from male leopards due to the risk of infanticide. Contrary to our expectations, we did not find any evidence for spatial or temporal avoidance between leopard families and adult male leopards. Male and lone female leopards exhibited positive pairwise co‐occurrence, consistent with reports of high overlap between male and female leopard home ranges. While a high level of overlap in temporal activity patterns was found between males/lone females and males/families, there was evidence for variation in the proportion of time each leopard group was active in particular periods of the diel cycle. Male leopards showed cathemeral activity, while lone females and families were more active during daylight hours. The application of these techniques to interactions within a species has improved understanding of the ecology and behavior of this endangered solitary carnivore.

Prey availability and intraguild competition regulate the spatiotemporal dynamics of a modified large carnivore guild.

Effective conservation management requires an understanding of the spatiotemporal dynamics driving large carnivore density and resource partitioning. In African ecosystems, reduced prey populations and the loss of competing guild members, most notably lion (Panthera leo), are expected to increase the levels of competition between remaining carnivores. Consequently, intraguild relationships can be altered, potentially increasing the risk of further population decline. Kasungu National Park (KNP), Malawi, is an example of a conservation area that has experienced large‐scale reductions in both carnivore and prey populations, leaving a resident large carnivore guild consisting of only leopard (Panthera pardus) and spotted hyena (Crocuta crocuta). Here, we quantify the spatiotemporal dynamics of these two species and their degree of association, using a combination of co‐detection modeling, time‐to‐event analyses, and temporal activity patterns from camera trap data. The detection of leopard and spotted hyena was significantly associated with the detection of preferred prey and competing carnivores, increasing the likelihood of species interaction. Temporal analyses revealed sex‐specific differences in temporal activity, with female leopard activity patterns significantly different to those of spotted hyena and male conspecifics. Heightened risk of interaction with interspecific competitors and male conspecifics may have resulted in female leopards adopting temporal avoidance strategies to facilitate coexistence. Female leopard behavioral adaptations increased overall activity levels and diurnal activity rates, with potential consequences for overall fitness and exposure to sources of mortality. As both species are currently found at low densities in KNP, increased risk of competitive interactions, which infer a reduction in fitness, could have significant implications for large carnivore demographics. The protection of remaining prey populations is necessary to mitigate interspecific competition and avoid further alterations to the large carnivore guild.

Correction to: Thanatological behavior of a female Leopard (Panthera pardus fusca)

Correction to: Thanatological behavior of a female Leopard (Panthera pardus fusca)

Thanatological behavior of a female Leopard (Panthera pardus fusca)

We report an observation at Jhalana Leopard Reserve (JLR), Jaipur, India. On 16 March 2019, we saw a female walking up the mountain while calling her two, 4-month-old, male and female cubs. This allowed several safari jeeps to park in the shade of nearby Acacia trees. Two Striped Hyenas (Hyaena hyaena) approached and sniffed at the base of one of the trees near the parked jeeps. Upon seeing the Hyaenas, the female ran down the mountain, passed between the jeeps, and climbed into the tree. That is when we noticed the body of the female cub at a height of approximately 4.5 m. The female licked the body of the cub for several minutes and then picked it up in her mouth, climbed down from the tree, passed again between the jeeps, and walked up the mountain towards a dense stand of Thor (Euphorbia caducifolia), a thorny cactus. Our observations display how a mother leopard that has lost a cub refuses to abandon the carcass, cached it in a tree, and when discovered by scavengers removed it to a thicket of cacti. We consider the behavior towards her dead cub, and subsequent caching when discovered by other animals, to be the first evidence for thanatological expression in leopards.

Результаты дистанционного исследования леопарда (Panthera pardus saxicolor, Pocock, 1927) в Зангезурском национальном парке им. акад. Г. А. Алиева Нахичеванской автономной республики Азербайджана

Since 2006, with the support of WWF (World Wide Fund for Nature) and IDEA (International Dialogue for Environmental Action), remote research of leopards (Panthera pardus saxicolor, Pocock, 1927 = P. p. ciscaucasica, Satunin, 1924). The main research is carried out on the eastern slopes of the Zangezur Mountains in the Aliyev Zangezur National Park of the Nakhchivan Autonomous Republic of Azerbaijan. To study the leopard, photographic traps of the Cudde Back (17 pieces), Panthera (5 pieces) and Bushnel (64 pieces) brands in the amount of 86 pieces are used. In 2019 alone, 373,622 photos and 45,553 videos were taken. On 340 photos and 71 video materials, adult leopards were recorded, and on 20 photos and 5 video materials, a female leopard with cubs was filmed, and a photo of a female and a male was found on 7 photos and 4 video materials. During this period, 12 adults and 3 calves were identified.

Emergency typhlectomy for caecal strangulation caused by chronic diaphragmatic hernia in a dog

A two‐year‐old female entire Catahoula leopard dog was referred for investigation and management of suspected chronic diaphragmatic hernia, 11 months post road traffic accident. The dog had a two‐month history of progressive lethargy and one‐week history of vomiting and anorexia. Physical examination revealed a slight increase in respiratory effort with normal respiratory rate. Cardiac and pulmonary sounds were muffled on thoracic auscultation and intestinal loops were not immediately palpable in the abdomen. Thoracic radiographs acquired before referral were suggestive of a diaphragmatic hernia, which was later confirmed on abdominal and thoracic ultrasound. Cardiorespiratory deterioration was evident eight hours post presentation and an emergency exploratory laparotomy was performed. The small intestines, caecum, and the ascending and transverse colon were found to have herniated into the thorax. Marked caecal necrosis was found intraoperatively. A typhlectomy and repair of the diaphragmatic defect were performed. The patient recovered uneventfully and was in good health nine months postoperatively.

Behavioral Responses by Adult Northern Leopard Frogs to Conspecific Chemical Cues

Chemical signaling is an important facet of vertebrate communication, and amphibians are no exception. However, very little is known about adult anuran (frog and toad) chemical communication, with the few studies that have investigated chemical sensing in adult anurans documenting species- and sex-biased behavioral responses to chemical cues. Varied life histories and reproductive pressures likely dictate these responses, but to better understand the prevalence and purpose of adult anuran olfaction across species, information on chemical sensing across a large number of species is needed. We investigated sex-biased adult Northern Leopard Frog (Lithobates pipiens) behavioral responses to familiar and unfamiliar conspecific chemical cues to determine the importance of olfaction in conspecific recognition. Our results indicate that adult females respond to conspecific cues, with females spending significantly more time investigating cue vs. control sides of the testing arena. Results for males were equivocal, with males responding much more variably. Comparisons of familiar vs. unfamiliar cues indicate that both sexes tend to spend more time near familiar cues, although this was not statistically significant. Females also responded to unfamiliar, opposite-sex conspecific cues, indicating chemical cues may be involved in mate identification for female Leopard Frogs. Unfamiliar, same-sex conspecific odors did not appear to influence behavior for either sex. Collectively, our results indicate that adult Northern Leopard Frogs utilize chemical sensing for conspecific recognition and further indicate a sex-bias in that sensing, with adult females exhibiting a stronger response than males. Future research should investigate aquatic vs. terrestrial cues and learned vs. innate odors of significance to Northern Leopard Frog adults.

Evaluation of β-carotene assimilation in leopard geckos (Eublepharis macularius).

Although leopard geckos (Eublepharis macularius) are commonly kept under human care, their vitamin requirements are largely unknown. Many invertebrate preys display a low vitamin A concentration; thus, gut-loading insects with vitamin A or carotenoids is a common practice. The objective of this prospective experimental study was to investigate whether dietary supplementation with β-carotene, including prey gut-loading, leads to sufficient vitamin A hepatic storage and prevents epithelial squamous metaplasia development in leopard geckos. Ten clinically healthy female leopard geckos were randomly divided in two groups with various supplementations: a group receiving vitamin A supplementation and a group receiving β-carotene. Insects were gut-loaded continuously with a supplement containing vitamin A or β-carotene, depending on the group. Oral supplementation with cod liver oil or carrot juice was administered weekly to each lizard from "vitamin A group" and "carotenoid group" respectively. After 10weeks of supplementation, surgical hepatic biopsies were obtained in three geckos of each group while the two remaining geckos were euthanized to undergo complete necropsy. Hepatic vitamin A concentration was determined for each lizard (n=10) by ultra-performance liquid chromatography. Histopathology revealed hepatocellular vacuolization and vitellogenic follicles in five females. Epithelial squamous metaplasia was not observed in any of the geckos. Hepatic vitamin A concentration was significantly higher in the carotenoid-supplemented group than in the vitamin A-supplemented group (p=0.03). Our results suggest that in leopard geckos, dietary supplementation with β-carotene allows sufficient vitamin A hepatic storage.

Intraspecific killing among Leopards (Panthera pardus) in Iran (Mammalia: Felidae)

Intraspecific aggression is one of the most common causes of death in leopards. Here, we report four cases of intraspecific killing amongst Persian Leopards (Panthera pardus saxicolor) in Iran. A young male leopard was found on 7 June 2008 which, according to camera trap images, had been killed by an adult male over a Red Deer (Cervus elaphus) kill, with trauma to his neck in Dorfak No-Hunting Area. A young female that had been fitted with a satellite GPS collar on 6 December 2015 in Tandoureh National Park died on 29 January 2016 at a site where an Urial Sheep (Ovis orientalis) ram had been freshly killed. Necropsy results, footprints at the scene of death and camera trap footage all supported the deduction that the animal was killed by a larger female leopard at the kill site. On 13 January 2017, a young, partially eaten female leopard was found with double puncture on the side of her throat. Finally, a rehabilitated adult female fitted with a satellite GPS collar found on 19 December 2017 with a double puncture on her head with several trauma and haemorrhages on her back. These instances seem to be the first documented reports of intraspecific killing among free-ranging leopards in Asia.

Interspecific responses of wild African carnivores to odour of 3-mercapto-3-methylbutanol, a component of wildcat and leopard urine

The scent of 3-mercapto-3-methylbutanol (3-M-3-MB), a volatile component of leopard (Panthera pardus) and domestic cat (Felis silvestris catus) urine, released at about 10 ng/s from slow-release dispensers, elicited scent-marking from African civet (Civettictis civetta), small-spotted genet (Genetta genetta) and slender mongoose (Galerella sanguinea), as well as African wildcat (F. s. cafra). A female leopard was apparently repelled by the scent. The scent-marking and scent-rubbing by species other than African wildcats and leopards were unexpected and have important implications for the design of studies to investigate chemical communication between wild mammals and the use of camera traps to estimate animal numbers. Videos showing the behaviours referred to in this article are available at; http://www.momo-p.com/showdetail-e.php?movieid=momo161223fs01a; http://www.momo-p.com/showdetail-e.php?movieid=momo161223gs01a; http://www.momo-p.com/showdetail-e.php?movieid=momo161223gg01a.

Partitioning of space, habitat, and timing of activity by large felids in an enclosed South African system

Reintroductions of large carnivores into enclosed reserves that confine movements may fail due to intensive intra-guild interspecific conflict. To assess conflict potential, in winter 2006 we used direct observations aided by radio-tracking to focally monitor continuously one female cheetah with cub (Acinonyx jubatus), a female leopard (Panthera pardus), and a lion pride (Panthera leo) at Shamwari Private Game Reserve, South Africa. Home ranges of all individuals/social groups overlapped, whereas core areas had little overlap. The cheetah core area had no overlap with the lion core area, with lion avoidance also recorded for a radio-tracked single female cheetah and a male leopard. The female cheetah with cub selected thicket habitat which was avoided by lions, the latter preferring naturally revegetated areas that were also selected by the female leopard. Lions also selected low elevations, which were avoided by the smaller felids. Habitat preference differences occurred at study area and home range levels, suggesting a broad-scale feline avoidance strategy to minimize intra-guild conflict. In addition, the focally monitored cheetah and leopard were often stationary when the lions were active, especially during nocturnal lion hunts. These intra-guild mechanisms of reintroduced carnivore coexistence should be tested with longer-term studies across enclosed systems of different sizes, and hosting varying carnivore guilds.

Computed tomography imaging of a leopard tortoise (Geochelone pardalis pardalis) with confirmed pulmonary fibrosis: a case report

An approximately 20-year-old, female Leopard tortoise (Geochelone pardalis pardalis) was presented with dypsnea, wheezing, anorexia and depression. Whole body radiographs revealed generalized diffuse unstructured ‘interstitial lung pattern’ with thickened pulmonary septae while computed tomography (CT) showed emphysematous lung parenchyma and thickened pulmonary septae bordered by irregular ground-glass opacity with smaller areas of ‘honeycombing’. These imaging findings together with histopathologic findings were compatible with chronic, extensive ‘interstitial’ pulmonary fibrosis.

PATENT DUCTUS ARTERIOSUS IN AN ADULT AMUR LEOPARD (PANTHERA PARDUS ORIENTALIS)

A clinically healthy 16-yr-old female leopard (Panthera pardus orientalis) was diagnosed with a patent ductus arteriosus on echocardiography and later confirmed on necropsy A murmur was heard on auscultation during a routine examination, and the congenital defect was an incidental finding. The animal had been asymptomatic its entire life. This deformity is rarely observed in nondomestic felids and may be asymptomatic, as has been described in domestic cats.

Complementing GPS Cluster Analysis with Activity Data for Studies of Leopard (Panthera pardus) Diet

Despite their wide distribution, feeding habits of leopards, Panthera pardus, outside savanna and forest habitats are poorly understood. We explored a novel approach of combining both GPS cluster and activity data analysis to study the hunting activity of a single female leopard in the Cederberg Mountains of the Western Cape, South Africa. Positions and acceleration data were obtained using a Vectronic GPS-PLUS collar. In total, 1760 GPS positions with a fix success of 87% were obtained between June 2008 and February 2009. Fifty-four of 78 potential kill sites identified from GPS data records were investigated 171 ± 91 days (mean ± S.D.) after the potential predation event which resulted in the detection of prey remains at 31 sites (success rate of 57.4%). Activity pattern was different at small-kill (rock hyrax; Hewitt's rock rabbit, Pronolagus saundersiae) sites compared to large-kill (antelope) sites, although data did not achieve significance (P = 0.07). Results of frequency analyses of activity data ...

A Case of Offspring Adoption in Leopards,Panthera pardus

We document the first reported instance of offspring adoption in a wild leopard (Panthera pardus) population and discuss the potential fitness benefits accrued by the biological and foster mothers. A 15-year-old female leopard adopted the 7-month-old male cub of her 9-year-old daughter and successfully raised him to independence. The behaviour was presumably motivated by kin selection as no reciprocal support was gained by the adoptive mother, she did not benefit from additional parental experience, and it was unlikely to be a case of reproductive error.