Female-headed Families Research Articles

Food Security Status of Female-Headed Households in Ethiopia

Abstract This article aims to explore the food security status of female-headed households and its determinant factors in Sidama Regional State, Ethiopia. To that end, the article used both quantitative and qualitative research approaches, as well as multistage sampling techniques and blending both descriptive and econometric statistics during data analysis. The findings depicted that 40.97% of female-head households were food secure, 15.97% of female headed households were mildly food insecure, 18.75% were highly food insecure, and 24.31% were severely food insecure. The study also involves demographic, socioeconomic, and institutional factors that had a substantial impact on food security in female-headed households in the study area. Finally, the study advised that rural female-headed families receive special care and support in order to improve their livelihoods and food security status, and that livestock holding and cultivated land size play an important role in boosting food security.

In between lived life and a social policy agenda: the Global South social question from the inside (Brazil)

This article aims to demonstrate how gender, class, and race are intertwined at the micro level, addressing the interaction of lived life and social policy, through biographical interviews, in Brazil. Less interested in the analysis of inequalities per se, this article focuses on the way black, elderly, poor, female heads of families, living in urban neighbourhoods, manage to subjectively resignify objective domination. The in-depth biographical approach reveals the (re)construction of their subjectivity, defining personal sacrifice as a form of protagonism (agency) and empowerment. This process of resignification occurs by exchanging the unit of experience they relate to, from the individual to the family unit. It engages with social policies (social assistance, public health, and social housing) implemented by the latest Labour Party’s term of office (2003–2016). These policies are based on the role of women as responsible for the family unit. The focus on subjectivity, in different Brazilian metropoles, challenges the production of conformed neoliberal selves, in this case of women, within a specific Global South context, marked by historically high levels of inequality and informal work, since the formal end of slavery.

Social and seismic structural vulnerability in Zihuatanejo, Guerrero, Mexico

The spatial distribution of the social and seismic structural vulnerabilities in Zihuatanejo (ZIH), Guerrero, Mexico, was estimated. Social vulnerability was assessed considering twelve indicators, including parameters such as access to health services, education, housing, employment, and unfavorable family conditions. Seismic structural vulnerability was evaluated characterizing the structural features of local houses, assessing the type and age of construction, and the quality of building materials. Surveyed households were randomly selected from a statistically significant sample. Our findings indicate that in the western and eastern areas of ZIH the population has high and very high social vulnerability. The main factors that condition these levels of social vulnerability are low-income, female-headed families, and households with marginal access to information technology, such as internet and telephone. Although seismic ground amplification in ZIH is relatively low, the regions to the west and southwest of the city are zones where the impact of strong earthquakes to constructions may be greater than in other areas. In particular, the districts of Lázaro Cárdenas, Benito Juárez, Cuauhtémoc, Emiliano Zapata, Las Mesas, Buenos Aires, Lomas del Quebrachal, and Lomas del Riscal would be affected. In general, houses vulnerable to the impact of earthquakes are in regions where the population is socially more vulnerable. More than 50% of the population and 30% of the houses have high and very high level of social and structural vulnerability, respectively. Our results provide information to the local and federal authorities to strengthen their civil protection and mitigation plans.

Social problem analysis of gender inequality in Donggala district

<span lang="EN-US">The difference in treatment between women and men affects the lives of women and men themselves, either directly or indirectly in society, is a source of gender problems. Discussing gender issues is not a problem for women facing men, but gender issues are a common community problem, which requires a process of mutual awareness in the division of roles and positions that does not ignore the rights and obligations of women and men in the family, community and other lives. This study aims to produce an analysis of gender problems in people's lives in various fields of development. The method used is to conduct a qualitative analysis of the gender profile data contained in regional apparatus organizations in Donggala Regency. The results of the study indicate that gender issues are an important issue in the implementation of development in Donggala Regency, Central Sulawesi Province, this can be seen from the gender profile data so that an analysis of this is needed. The results of this analysis are expected to be the basis for the preparation of development programs in the fields of health, economy and employment, as well as in the fields of politics and decision-making. It is concluded that the high maternal mortality rate, the large number of poor female family heads and the low political participation of women are the main problems that are difficult to resolve.</span>

THE IMPACT OF COVID-19 PANDEMIC ON VULNERABLE GROUPS IN POST-DISASTER AREA

The COVID-19 pandemic has caused economic crises in many parts of the world, including post-disaster areas in Indonesia. Various studies have found that COVID-19 has caused most people to lose their livelihoods, leading to more severe poverty. However, not much is known about the impact of COVID-19 on Vulnerable Groups in post-disaster areas. The approach used in this research is descriptive qualitative where data is collected through interviews, observation, and utilizing secondary data. This study found that the pandemic caused worse conditions for vulnerable groups in post-disaster areas. The impact can be seen from both social and economic aspects. Socially, the pandemic has changed the livelihood patterns of vulnerable groups, ranging from changes in the type and number of business products to changing professions from farmers to construction workers. In addition, female family heads and the elderly are often stigmatized during the pandemic. Violence against children has also increased significantly. Economically, the pandemic has led to an increase in the unemployment in the disaster area. Female heads of household have experienced shrinking incomes and have contributed to the poverty rate. Businesses in the affected areas have difficulty accessing capital due to lack of business legality from the government.

151-OR: Social Determinants of Health Predict Diabetic Foot Infection Development

The objective was to identify social determinants of health (SDOH) associated with development of diabetic foot infection using the CDC Healthy People Framework at a tertiary care center. Targeted interrogation of structured and unstructured data using novel electronic medical record search engines was used to analyze patient encounters in individuals with diabetes and a concomitant diabetic foot complication during a twenty-year period (2001-2021). Among ~ 200 million encounters from people with diabetic foot complications, 8351 developed diabetic foot ulcers (DFU), and 1671 suffered a DFU infection. The risk of infection development in people with a DFU was assessed with the neighborhood disadvantaged index score from over 200 million separate patient encounters. The neighborhood disadvantaged index based on available geolocation data, provides a unitless value to describe the relative socioeconomic background of an individual as determined by the proportion (%) of non-Hispanic black, proportion (%) of female headed families with children, and the proportion of households (%) with public assistance income or food stamps in a defined area. The average disadvantaged index score for the DFU population was 0.06 and was comparable to the state of Michigan's average disadvantaged index of 0.05. In those persons who developed DFU infection, the index score averaged 0.13, 2.2x higher than the DFU population (p<0.05). Additionally, divorced individuals represented 2% of all individuals with DFU but accounted for 5% of those who developed DFU infection. This was disproportionate to other marriage statuses. These data strongly support the need to incorporate SDOH into updated DFU standard of care guidelines. Moreover, we clearly demonstrate that SDOH, more specifically geolocation data, can be used to identify individuals who are more likely to develop DFU infection. Thus, it is essential that SDOH are included in patient risk stratification to prevent severe diabetic foot complications. Disclosure B.M.Schmidt: None. A.Burant: None. N.Baker: None. A.Katona: None. C.Martin: Advisory Panel; Nevro Corp. C.M.Holmes: None. R.Busui: Board Member; American Diabetes Association, Consultant; Averitas Pharma, Inc., Lexicon Pharmaceuticals, Inc., Nevro Corp., Novo Nordisk, Roche Diagnostics, Procter & Gamble, Research Support; Novo Nordisk, Medtronic, National Institutes of Health. Funding National Institute of Diabetes and Digestive and Kidney Diseases (1K23DK131261-01A1, 5U01DK119083-05)

Pastoralists’ indigenous knowledge and perceptions of rangeland degradation in three communal rangelands of central northern Namibia

This study investigated the pastoralists' indigenous knowledge on livestock production, trends and their perceptions of rangeland degradation and its indicators in Omaandi, Epukunoyana and Oshitutuma in central northern Namibia. A total of 30 households that own livestock and two elder groups were selected from each communal area. A questionnaire was used to gather household information, and an open-ended discussion was conducted to interview elders. Data were analysed using SPSS statistical software programme (SPSS version 22 2015), where the Friedman's Chi-square test (Steel and Torrie, 1980) was used. The majority of interviewed households in Omaandi (63%), Oshitutuma (53%) and Epukunoyana (50%) were female headed families and the remaining were male headed. The mean population of goats and cattle were significantly higher (P < 0.05) in Omaandi and Epukunoyana than in Oshitutuma village. Household respondents in all villages indicated that all livestock species were primarily kept for wealth status and meat provision for consumption. Respondents in all villages indicated that lack of grazing lands and feed followed by water scarcity and recurring droughts were the primary and secondary constraints of livestock production. Elder respondents regarded overgrazing and climate change as the primary cause of rangeland degradation. Hence, the study concludes that communal rangelands are degraded and degradation resulted in gradual livestock population declining trends over the past years in communal areas, due to feed shortage.

Citizenship, Family Law, and the Repatriation of Islamic State Affiliates in MENA

ABSTRACT Since the fall of Islamic State’s so-called caliphate in March 2019, the United States and other international actors have repeatedly urged states to repatriate their citizens. Analyses of this issue too often focus on citizens of Western countries despite the fact that they constitute only a small fraction of the group’s members and affiliates. Focusing on Middle East and North African (MENA) countries, we contend that citizenship law and family law play a central role in determining an individual’s prospects for repatriation by forming the basis of a state’s articulation of who belongs to the nation and who the state is responsible for. We identify important sub-regional patterns that shape the repatriation of Islamic State affiliates through the differential treatment of women in MENA citizenship and nationality law and family law. In addition, we find that the distinction between custodian and guardian in MENA family law provides a useful basis for the related challenge of reintegrating female-headed family units as well as orphaned children.

Leaving No Women Behind: Evaluating the Impact of the COVID-19 Pandemic on Livelihood Outcomes in Kenya and Ethiopia.

The SARS-CoV-2 pandemic has revolutionised our lives, bringing with it the twin crises of illness and the need for an optimal mix of policies to alleviate its impact on the population. There needs to be more evidence on the effects of the pandemic on livelihood outcomes, including an understanding of whether female-headed families in low-income countries fare worse than their male-headed counterparts during pandemics. Using high-frequency phone surveys conducted in Ethiopia and Kenya, we examine the aggregate impact of the pandemic on income and consumption losses, as well as food insecurity. The empirical analysis estimates linear probability models that relate livelihood outcomes with household headship and other socioeconomic characteristics as controls. Overall, the pandemic increased the likelihood of food insecurity while decreasing income and consumption, particularly among female-headed households. In Kenya, living in a female-headed home increased the possibility of an adult going without food by about 10%, an adult skipping a meal by about 9.9%, and a child missing a meal by about 17% in the seven days preceding the telephone survey. In Ethiopia, living in a female-headed household increased the likelihood of an adult going hungry, skipping a meal, and running out of food by about 24.35%, 18.9%, and 26.7%, respectively. Salient pre-existing socioeconomic inequalities further exacerbated the effects of the pandemic on livelihoods. The findings have important implications for public policy and preparations by governments and other organisations interested in developing suitable gender-sensitive measures to lessen the impact of future pandemics in low- and middle-income countries.

Experiences of Female-headed Households in the ADRA Cash Transfer Programme in Zvishavane, Zimbabwe

The social, economic, and political crises in Zimbabwe have resulted in extreme poverty and the female-headed families are no exception. The COVID-19 pandemic exacerbated poverty and food insecurity in rural households. This sudden shock was not anticipated, and many governments failed to sustain livelihoods for smallholder farmers who relied solely on farming activities and selling of farm produce. The state has failed to fulfil its basic mandate of social service provision to the most vulnerable sections of society. Consequently, the Basic Agricultural Assistance programme was introduced as a microeconomic stability tool to buffer income risks faced by the poor. The article aimed to discuss the experiences of female-headed households in the Adventist Development and Relief Agency cash transfer Programme in Nganunu Village in Zvishavane. A phenomenological research approach through an exploratory qualitative research design was used to get in-depth insights on the experiences of female-headed households. In-depth interviews and focus group discussions were used to collect data. Content thematic analysis was used to analyse data. Findings indicated that despite health, political and economic crises, the implementation of the Adventist Development and Relief Agency cash transfer was a success in bridging the gap left by the collapse of the social welfare system. The cash transfer programme empowered female-headed households to access agricultural inputs timeously. Female-headed households were capacitated to make decisions and improve food security in and to initiate social cohesion with other beneficiaries. The study recommended inter-sectoral collaborations between state and non-state actors for more effective programmes that cushion female-headed households from poverty.

Microfinance's Crucial Role in Helping Victims of a Natural Calamity

This study aimed to examine microfinance's role in providing essential services to economically disadvantaged people in the aftermath of natural disasters. A study of 300 people who use microfinance was carried out in the tehsil of Taunsa, located in the district of Dera Ghazi Khan. In 2022, information was gathered from microfinance institution customers impacted by flooding. The purpose of this study was to determine whether or not microfinance helped them meet their basic needs during the natural disaster. The data was analyzed using the 21st edition of the Statistical Package for the Social Sciences (SPSS). The most important findings from this study were that most microfinance users were men; however, slightly more than one-third of microfinance users were females. This is an important finding because, in a natural disaster, financial assistance is provided to female-headed families so their basic needs can be met. The vast majority of those polled owned their homes, most of which were flooded. The findings of this study suggested that neither the government nor microfinance institutions provide significant assistance to disaster victims in their efforts to recover. According to preliminary findings from this study, low-income families facing difficult circumstances during or after a disaster are more likely to rely on themselves and the coping mechanisms provided by their communities than on any public or private assistance. According to the findings, policy interventions aimed at reducing flood losses and assisting improvement should consider the shifting risk profile that impoverished people face when it comes to natural disasters.

Determinants of Family Resilience in Female-Headed Families on the North Coast of Java

This study analyzes the relationship between religiosity, education, and social support to family resilience in women-headed households. Family resilience is an exciting issue discussed today, seeing the fragility of the couple's understanding based on the family itself. It is essential because it protects from life problems and difficulties arising from the internal or external family, including groups, environments, communities, and countries. The results of this study contribute to efforts to increase family resilience, especially in women-headed homes, because family resilience is the main foundation in realizing community resilience as one of the efforts to boost national development. The power of national development is sourced to families as small groups in society. Thus, an in-depth study of the factors that affect family resilience to create a prosperous family, resistance, and continuity of national development is needed. The research method uses a quantitative approach and collects data using surveys of 15-20 women-headed households in Sayung, Demak. Data analysis is carried out with Validity Test, Reliability Test, and Regression Analysis using SPSS software. This study showed that education positively and significantly affects family resilience. In contrast, religiosity and social support have a positive and insignificant impact. The government can be used as a reference in decision-making to help economic resilience in women-headed households by making programs to increase family resilience in economics.

Changes in neighborhood disadvantage over 18 years contributes to racial disparities in later‐life cognition

AbstractBackgroundNeighborhood disadvantage (NDis) is a well‐studied contextual and local indicator of Black‐White health disparities, including cognitive health. Trajectories of NDis are less commonly studied but may be important for understanding how investment and disinvestment in neighborhoods with predominately Black residents may contribute to disparities in cognitive aging. This study characterizes 18‐year trajectories of NDis and examines whether trajectories of NDis mediate Black‐White disparities in cognitive function.MethodThis study of 480 non‐Hispanic Black (NHB) and White (NHW) older adults (Mage = 63.9; 55% Black) were drawn from the Michigan Cognitive Aging Project (MCAP), a regionally‐representative, prospective longitudinal study of older adults in the Detroit metropolitan area. Participants’ current addresses were geocoded and linked to historical neighborhood data from the National Neighborhood Data Archive (NaNDA). Yearly measures of NDis from 2000 to 2017 reflect a composite of four indicators of disadvantage (proportions of: female headed families with children; households with public assistance; families below the federal poverty level; adults unemployed). First, a latent class growth analysis (LCGA) was used to determine distinct types of 18‐year NDis trajectories across 1,344 census tracts in the six counties represented in the sample. Next, path analysis was used to quantify the extent to which the identified classes of NDis trajectory mediated the association between race and global cognition, which was operationalized as a composite of five cognitive domain factor scores (i.e., episodic memory, executive function, processing speed, language, and visuospatial ability). Mediation models adjusted for age, sex/gender, and education.ResultLCGA indicated three classes of NDis trajectories: persistently high disadvantage (PHD: 9%), high and increasing disadvantage (HID; 16%), and persistently low disadvantage (PLD; 75%). NHB participants were more likely to live in PHD or HID neighborhoods, which were each associated with worse global cognition. NDis trajectories explained 12% of the Black‐White disparity in global cognition. HID was a stronger mediator of cognitive disparities than PHD.ConclusionDisinvestment in neighborhoods may contribute to racial disparities in global cognition among adults transitioning to late life. This study highlights the value of examining risk and resilience factors at the neighborhood level in research on ADRD inequalities.

Male Caregivers and Engagement in a Family Strengthening Program for Child Disruptive Behavior Disorders.

Awareness and interest in involving male caregivers in child mental health treatment has grown, especially for youth with disruptive behavior disorders like oppositional defiant disorder (ODD). The purpose of this study was to examine the relationship between male caregiver involvement and treatment engagement for child ODD. Children (n=122) ages 7-11 and their caregivers participated in the 4 Rs 2 Ss Strengthening Families Program for child-onset ODD. Families were compared based on male caregiver presence. Families with a male caregiver were significantly more resourced with respect to income, educational status, and food security. Additionally, they were over three times less likely to drop out of the program than those without a male caregiver. The presence of a male caregiver was associated with increased resources and higher rates of engagement in services than single, female-headed families. Future research is needed to discern the underlying mechanisms of this association.

Energy poverty trends and determinants in Pakistan: Empirical evidence from eight waves of HIES 1998–2019

United Nations Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs) have incorporated clean and affordable fuel access as the 7th goal because energy is crucial for economic development and well-being. However, the increase in energy prices, volatility, removal of subsidies, fiscal burden and limited access to modern fuel, and financial burden on the households have led to an increase in energy poverty. Although energy poverty is widely prevalent worldwide, it is more pervasive in developing countries. Yet, there is limited research on energy poverty in developing countries, and the government policy and program do not focus on energy poverty. Therefore, this study examines the energy poverty trend and factors influencing energy poverty in Pakistan using eight rounds of nationally representative Household Income and Expenditure (HIES) survey data collected during 1998–2019. This research adopted two different measures of energy poverty, namely ten percent and double median. The result shows that despite significant economic progress, energy poverty has increased during the last two decades. The study further investigated the determinants of energy poverty in Pakistan using the Probit model, and the results revealed that households with a low endowment, less education, and female-headed families are more likely to be energy poor. Given Pakistan's current energy poverty situation, it is challenging to meet SDG 7 of providing clean and affordable energy access to all by 2030. Therefore, sizeable clean energy programs targeting the poor with low education, families living in rural areas, and female-headed households are needed.

Female family heads in fascist Italy: a study of the 1931 population census

ABSTRACT This article examines the characteristics of Italian families with a female family head in the Italian Population Census of 1931. The aim is to assess the spread and distribution of female-led families in Italy, and to analyze, in demographic and socio-economic terms, the characteristics of these families and the women who led them. Differences between these female-led families and those with male family heads are highlighted in terms of demographic characteristics, social status and geographical distribution. Female-family heads were mostly widows and were particularly numerous among the very rich and the very poor. As regards territorial distribution, female family heads were more numerous in the north and south than in the centre, and they were more common in cities than in the countryside. Many characteristics of these female-led families can be traced back hundreds of years.

The place of care in social housing in a neoliberal era

The lack of affordable housing in Canada affects a growing number of female heads of single-parent families, and the current political economy presents significant obstacles to develop more social housing in response. This paper seeks to understand the extent to which new housing programmes led by community providers comply with or resist neoliberalisation. We draw on feminist ethics of care to explore and deepen the ideas, interests, institutions, and networks involved in creating social housing for female heads of single-parent families in Montreal, Toronto, and Vancouver, Canada. The cases reveal that neoliberalisation is not eliminating care in the social housing sector. On the one hand, communities that embrace and engage with the principles of care comply with state rollback by stepping up to meet pressing needs despite the inadequacies or unavailability of public programmes. On the other hand, care ethics lead them to design programmes and spaces centred on family needs, which resist the climate that hampers social housing development and orients it toward market-driven solutions and neoliberal expectations. We conclude with a critical reflection on the inequalities in communities’ capacity to create housing with care to meet the identified needs and thereby resist the neoliberalisation of social housing.

Developmental Disabilities in the Context of Fragile Families: Racial and Ethnic Disparities at Age Nine

Abstract Racial–ethnic disparities in the diagnosis of certain developmental disabilities (DDs), such as autism spectrum disorder (ASD), contribute to delayed treatment for Latinx children. Although recent data suggest the disparities are mitigated over time, Latinx children are still less likely to have an ASD diagnosis, and those from low-income families are disproportionately affected. To build on previous research emphasizing these racial–ethnic disparities, this study focused on families in vulnerable or underserved communities, including female-headed and low-income households. Multiple waves of the Fragile Families and Child Wellbeing Study were analyzed, so that this sample represents populations mainly served by social workers. After controlling for demographic and socioeconomic factors, and behavioral health symptoms, authors estimated the likelihood of receiving a diagnosis for a particular developmental disorder and overall DDs. Compared with children of non-Latina White mothers, children of Latina mothers were less likely to have an ASD diagnosis. Findings confirm the lingering racial–ethnic gaps in diagnoses, even among female-headed households and low-income families. Further, authors suggest interventions addressing systematic and cultural barriers for equitable diagnosis of DDs that target pediatricians and other behavioral health providers, teachers, and Latinx families and communities.

Prevalence and associated factors of adolescent fatherhood in Ethiopia: A multilevel analysis using the 2016 Ethiopian demographic health survey data.

Though the consequences of teenage pregnancy and early motherhood has been studied very well, little is known about the magnitude as well as the determinants of adolescent fatherhood. Unlike adolescent motherhood, limited public health programs are working on adolescent fatherhood. Currently, in developed countries, there is an increased work to acknowledge teen fathers in clinical practice and in the research forum, but still, there are more issues that need to be addressed in developing countries including Ethiopia. Therefore, this study aimed to investigate the prevalence and associated factors of adolescent fatherhood in Ethiopia based on the nationally representative survey. This study used the 2016 Ethiopian Demographic and Health Survey (EDHS) data. A total weighted sample of 4455 adolescent men was included for the final analysis. For the associated factors, multilevel logistic regression analysis was conducted to consider the hierarchical nature of the EDHS data. Intra-class Correlation Coefficient (ICC), and deviance (-2LLR) were used for model comparison and for assessing model fitness. The model with the largest adjusted R2, lowest Bayesian Information Criteria (BIC) and the smallest cross-validation prediction error were considered as the best-fitted model. In the multivariable analysis, the Adjusted Odds Ratio (AOR) with 95% Confidence Interval (CI) were reported to declare the presence of statistically significant factors associated with adolescent fatherhood, and variables with p-value <0.05 were considered as a significant variable. The prevalence of adolescent fatherhood in Ethiopia was 6.79% [95%CI; 6.08%, 7.56%]. Adolescent men with contraceptive knowledge [AOR = 4.25; 95%CI = 1.23, 14.69], age in 20 to 24 years [AOR = 7.93; 95%CI = 3.66, 17.27] and being Muslim [AOR = 1.84; 95%CI = 1.02, 3.39] were significantly associated with Higher odds of adolescent fatherhood. Individuals who initiate sex lately [AOR = 0.35; 95%CI = 0.22, 0.54], being in female-headed family [AOR = 0.46; 95%CI; 0.26, 0.82] and being from Amhara region [AOR = 0.35; 95%CI = 0.14, 0.84] were significantly associated with lower odds of adolescent fatherhood. In this study, adolescent fatherhood was a common public health problem in Ethiopia as it is closely linked with poor quality of life and premature death (year of potential life lost). Age of respondent, knowledge of respondent about contraceptive methods, early initiation of sex, religion, sex of household head, and region were significantly associated with adolescent fatherhood. Therefore, program planners and decision-makers should give special attention to adolescent men through enhancing reproductive health services utilization and their knowledge towards it to decrease the incidence of adolescent fatherhood.

Heterogeneity in food expenditure among US families: evidence from longitudinal quantile regression

Empirical studies on food expenditure are largely based on cross-section data and for a few studies based on longitudinal (or panel) data the focus has been on the conditional mean. While the former, by construction, cannot model the dependencies between observations across time, the latter cannot look at the relationship between food expenditure and covariates (such as income, education, etc.) at lower (or upper) quantiles, which are of interest to policymakers. This paper analyzes expenditures on total food (TF), food at home (FAH), and food away from home (FAFH) using mean regression and quantile regression models for longitudinal data to examine the impact of economic recession and various demographic, socioeconomic, and geographic factors. The data are taken from the Panel Study of Income Dynamics (PSID) and comprise of 2174 families in the United States (US) observed between 2001 and 2015. Results indicate that age and education of the head, family income, female-headed family, marital status, and economic recession are important determinants for all three types of food expenditure. Spouse education, family size, and some regional indicators are important for expenditures on TF and FAH, but not for FAFH. Quantile analysis reveals considerable heterogeneity in the covariate effects for all types of food expenditure, which cannot be captured by models focused on conditional mean. The study ends by showing that modeling conditional dependence between observations across time for the same family unit is crucial to reducing/avoiding heterogeneity bias and better model fitting.