Female Genital Circumcision Research Articles

Psychosocial and Sexual Aspects of Female Genital Circumcision in a Sample of Kurdish Women in the Kurdistan Region of Iraq.

Female genital circumcision (FGC), a prevalent practice in the Kurdistan Region of Iraq, has significant psychosocial and sexual implications for affected women. Therefore, this study aimed to investigate these impacts among circumcised and non-circumcised Kurdish women. This comparative study was conducted from January 2 to June 27, 2023, at the Al Mesalla for Human Rights Improvement organization in Erbil, Iraq. Purposive sampling was used to collect data using a comprehensive questionnaire. The questionnaire included demographic information, the Depression, Anxiety, and Stress Scale (DASS-21), the Rosenberg Self-Esteem Scale (RSE), and the New Sexual Satisfaction Scale-Short Form (NSSS-S). Statistical analysis was performed using SPSS version 26 (IBM Corp., Armonk, NY), with frequency and percentage used for categorical variables and mean and standard deviation for quantitative variables. Independent sample t-tests and Chi-square tests were conducted to compare groups. A p-value of less than 0.05 was considered statistically significant. A total of 772 participants were enrolled in the study, including 382 circumcised and 390 non-circumcised women. The study found significant differences between the two groups in terms of depression, self-esteem, and sexual satisfaction. Circumcised women had higher mean scores for depression (12.19 ± 5.6 vs. 10.68 ± 5.3), lower mean scores for self-esteem (24.4 ± 12.1 vs. 30.3 ± 10.1), and lower mean scores for sexual satisfaction (52.4 ± 24.6 vs. 67.6 ± 20.4) compared to non-circumcised women (all p < 0.001). The study demonstrated that FGC is associated with higher levels of depression, lower self-esteem, and lower sexual satisfaction among Kurdish women. It is recommended for policymakers and healthcare providers to develop targeted interventions to address the psychosocial and sexual health needs of circumcised women in the Kurdistan Region of Iraq.

Maternal origin matters: Country of birth as a risk factor for obstetric anal sphincter injuries.

Obstetric anal sphincter injuries (OASIS) are severe complications to vaginal births with potential long-term consequences. Maternal origin has been proposed to affect the overall risk, but the association and underlying explanation are uncertain. The objective was to assess the association between maternal country of birth and OASIS. A Swedish nationwide cohort study including singleton term vaginal births during 2005-2016. Data were extracted from the Swedish Medical Birth Registry and Statistics Sweden. Modified Poisson regression analyses were performed to obtain crude and adjusted risk ratios (RRs). Adjustments were made in four cumulative steps. Sub-analyses were performed to investigate the risk of OASIS associated with female genital circumcision (FGC). In all, 988 804 births were included. The rate of OASIS in Swedish-born women was 3.5%. Women from East/Southeast Asia had an increased risk of OASIS (adjusted RR [aRR] 1.71, 95% confidence interval [CI] 1.60-1.83), as did women born in Sub-Saharan Africa (aRR 1.60, 95% CI 1.49-1.72). The risk remained significantly increased also after adjustment for maternal height. By contrast, women from South/Central America had a decreased risk of OASIS (aRR 0.65, 95% CI 0.56-0.76). FGC was associated with an increased risk of OASIS (aRR 3.05, 95% CI 2.60-3.58). Episiotomy appeared to have an overall protective effect (aRR 0.95, 95% CI 0.92-0.98), but not significantly more protective among women with female genital mutilation. Country of birth plays an important role in the risk of OASIS. Women from East/Southeast Asia and Sub-Saharan Africa are at significantly increased risk as compared with Swedish-born women, whereas women from South/Central America are at lower risk. FGC is also a significant risk factor for OASIS.

Is Female Genital Circumcision a Driver of Income Inequality in Sub-Saharan Africa? Evidence from Nigeria

This study considers the effects of female genital circumcision (FGC) on household income inequality in Nigeria. To the extent that FGC has adverse health consequences, it can lower female labour productivity and earnings relative to males. Theoretically, we motivate our inquiry within a simple game-theoretic household norm bargaining framework in which there are several possible equilibria based on the decisions of representative males to require FGC, and representative females accepting, or not. We link regional data on Nigeria from the Afrobarometer survey to existing regional FGC surveillance data in Nigeria to estimate with Ordinal Logit specifications, the effect of regional FGC rates on a household’s position in the income distribution. Our parameter estimates reveal that as the ratio of daughter to mother genital circumcision increases in a region, the odds of a household being in the lower income decile increases. The FGC effects are consistent with a political economy of gender bargaining about FGC choices in which males have more bargaining power in governing/managing the household relative to females. Our results suggest that any policy intervention that eradicates FGC, including interventions that affect a political economy of bargaining that at least equalises bargaining power between males and females, could reduce household income inequality in Sub-Saharan Africa. JEL: I14, I18, J16, O5, Z13

Socio-economic disparities in female genital circumcision: finding from a case-control study in Mahabad, Iran

BackgroundFemale genital circumcision (FGC) is still a challenge in reproductive health. This study investigated socioeconomic disparities in FGC in the Kurdish region of Mahabad, Iran.MethodsA case-control study was conducted in three comprehensive health centers on 130 circumcised girls as the case group and 130 girls without a history of circumcision as the control group, according to the residential area and the religious sect. The participants completed a previously validated demographic and circumcision information questionnaire. A multivariate logistic regression model with a backward method at a 95% confidence level was used to determine the relationship between socioeconomic variables and FGC.ResultsMultivariate logistic regression showed that a family history of FGC (AOR 9.90; CI 95%: 5.03–19.50), age ranging between 20 and 30 years (AOR 8.55; CI 95%: 3.09–23.62), primary education (AOR 6.6; CI 95%: 1.34–33.22), and mothers with primary education (AOR 5.75; CI 95%: 1.23–26.76) increased the chance of FGC.ConclusionThe present study provided evidence on socioeconomic factors related to FGC in girls. A family history of FGC, age ranging between 20 and 30 years, and girls’ and their mothers’ education level were strong predictors of FGC. The findings indicate the need to design effective interventions to address these factors to help eradicate FGC.

Factors Associated with HBsAg Seropositivity among Pregnant Women Receiving Antenatal Care at 10 Community Health Centers in Freetown, Sierra Leone: A Cross-Sectional Study.

Hepatitis B (HBV) is a major public health threat in Sierra Leone. Pregnant women are disproportionately impacted, yet little is known about the epidemiology of HBV in this group. We conducted a cross-sectional study of pregnant women aged ≥16 years receiving antenatal care across 10 community health centers in Freetown from July to September 2021 to assess the prevalence and associated factors of HBsAg seropositivity. Logistic regression was used to identify the predictors of HBsAg seropositivity. In total, 394 pregnant women were screened. The mean age was 24.4 ± 4.9 years, 78.2% were married, and 47.2% were in the second trimester. Only 1% had received the HBV vaccine. The prevalence of HBsAg was 7.9%, while HIV was 5.8% and HIV/HBV co-infection was 0.3%. Regarding high-risk practices, 76.6% reported female genital circumcision, 41.9% ear piercing, 29.0% endorsed multiple sexual partners, and 23.6% reported sexually transmitted infections. In the logistic regression analysis, having a husband/partner with HBV (adjusted odds ratio (aOR): 6.54; 95% CI: [1.72–24.86]; p = 0.006) and residing in Central Freetown (aOR: 4.00; 95% CI: [1.46–11.00]; p = 0.007) were independently associated with HBsAg seropositivity. Our findings support the scaling up of HBV services to target pregnant women and their partners for screening and vaccination to help reduce mother-to-child transmission rates in Sierra Leone.

Prevalence and Risk Factors of HBV and HCV Co-Infection Among People Living with HIV in an Egyptian Setting.

Human Immune Deficiency Virus (HIV), Hepatitis B Virus (HBV) and Hepatitis C Virus (HCV) infections constitute a global health concern. They share common modes of transmission, increasing the likelihood of co-infection. Co-infection accelerates viral replication, promotes the progression of chronic liver diseases and challenges antiviral therapy. There are no available data addressing the magnitude of chronic viral hepatitis co-infection in people living with HIV in Egypt. Nor is there a mandate for HCV/HBV screening. This cross-sectional study provides needed data on HBV and/or HCV co-infection in Egyptian people living with HIV. The study was conducted at the HIV clinic in Alexandria Fever Hospital. The investigation included 168 confirmed HIV cases. All cases were interviewed and tested for HCV-Ab and HBsAg by ELISA. There were 52 (31%) persons who were anti-HCV positive. 40 of them had detectable HCV RNA (76.9%). HIV/HCV co-infection was significantly higher among males (40.7%) compared to only (10.9%) among females (OR = 3). History of imprisonment (OR = 4.84, CI: 1.33-17.62), accidental puncture with protruding needle contaminated with blood (OR = 3.35, CI: 0.99-11.72), alcohol use (OR = 3.03, CI: 1.13-8.09) and male gender (OR = 2.96, CI: 0.99-8.88) were all significant predictors for HIV/HCV co-infection. On the other hand, HIV/HCV co-infection was inversely associated with high education level (OR = 0.28, CI: 0.10-0.76). HBsAg was detected in 4 (2.4%), and anti-HBc in 49 (29.2%) of HIV patients. Previous HBV infection (positive anti-HBc/negative anti-HBs) was significantly associated with a history of female genital mutilation circumcision, injection drug use, invasive procedures, non-specific fatigue and HCV-Ab seropositivity. Egyptian people living with HIV have an increased frequency of HCV antibody and HCV infection compared to the general population indicating a higher risk of infection and suggest a higher risk of HCV exposure. Past or present HBV co-infections are also elevated. Routine screening of these viruses in the management protocol of people living with HIV in Egypt is recommended.

The comparison of sexual function in women with or without experience of female genital circumcision: A case-control study in a Kurdish region of Iran

Studies on the sexual consequences of female genital circumcision are controversial. In this article, we intend to compare the sexual function in women with or without experience of circumcision in the Kurdish region of Mahabad in Iran. In this case-control study 550 women completed the demographic and Female Sexual Function Index (FSFI) questionnaires. Female genital circumcision was associated with reduction of lubrication and sexual satisfaction as well as increasing dyspareunia compared to the uncircumcised women. However, there was no significant difference between two groups regarding to arousal, desire and orgasm of women.

Investigation of Prevalence and Complications of Female Genital Circumcision: A Systematic and Meta-analytic Review Study.

The present study was conducted to investigate the complications of circumcision and determine its prevalence in the studied areas. In this study, the electronic databases of Scopus, PubMed, SID, Web of Science and Magiran were selected to search the total population of observational studies published in Persian and English on the prevalence and circumcision complications in girls. The keywords searched for this purpose were as follows: female genital mutilation, Infibulations, Epidemiologic Methods, Clitorectomies, Female Circumcision, Clitorectomy, Clitoridectomy Complications, Prevalence, associated disease, coexistent conditions, and sequels associated with concomitant conditions, and coexistent disease and their Persian equivalent words. Prevalence estimates of all studies were pooled using a random-effects model at a confidence level of 95%. The bias in the published results of the studies and any reporting errors were examined using Begg and Egger's statistical tests. Out of 3756 studies, 45 articles were included in the study after excluding irrelevant and repetitive articles. After reviewing the articles in this field, it was determined that female genital mutilation has sexual complications, problems during childbirth, physical and psychological complications. The prevalence of female genital circumcision in the world and Iran in the study areas was obtained using the random effect model, which was estimated to be 61% (95%, CI = 0.49, 0.73) and 61% (95%, CI = 0.52, 0.70), respectively. In other areas, the prevalence was reported to be close to zero. In total, among different countries of the world, of the 207,709 participants surveyed, 110,596 had undergone female genital circumcision (110,596 of 207,709). The effects of female genital mutilation on girls are high and require government intervention in various countries.

Are you in pain if you say you are not? Accounts of pain in Somali-Canadian women with female genital cutting.

As a rite of passage to womanhood, 2 million girls undergo female genital circumcision (FGC)-the tradition of cutting, and often removing parts of the vulva-every year. The current study is the first to focus on the connection between peripheral nerve damage and chronic neuropathic pain in women with FGC. We used mixed methods-quantitative, qualitative, and physiological-to study chronic pain in Somali-Canadian women (N = 14). These women have the most extensive form of FGC, which includes removal of the glans clitoris, labia minora, medial portion of the labia majora, and stitching together the remaining parts of the labia majora. Our results indicate a multifaceted pain experience in women with FGC. Although they report good overall health and very low pain levels on the short form of the McGill Pain Questionnaire, pressure-pain quantitative sensory testing of the vulvar region applied through vulvalgesiometers shows pain thresholds consistent with those reported by women with chronic vulvar pain. Furthermore, qualitative interviews reveal a considerable amount of often debilitating pain in daily life. These results challenge the use of assessment tools offering elicited verbal pain language and highlight the importance of culturally sensitive ways of conceptualizing, measuring, and managing pain.

The Response of Human Rights Law to the Practice of Female Genital Mutilation in Nigeria

Female Genital Mutilation (FGM) or female circumcision is a traditional practice among various tribes in Africa including Nigeria. This paper highlights the pros and cons of the practice. The practitioners argued for its continuation because it was an important cultural heritage that marks the transition of a girl from childhood to adulthood while the abolitionists want it to be abolished because it violates human rights. A doctrinal method of research is used to look into the veracity of the arguments on both sides. The prevailing opinion is that FGM or female circumcision violates both constitutionally guaranteed rights like rights to life, health, physical integrity, dignity, etc and human rights treaties and Conventions like United Nations Charter, Universal Declaration of Human Rights, International Covenant on Civil and Political Rights, the Maputo Protocol, etc. In view of this, the paper recommends that the practice should be abolished.

The Employment of Public Mural Design in Serving Feminist Issues in the Egyptian Society: an Educational and Practical Experiment With a Group of Students From the 4TH Level at the Mural Painting Section in 2018/2019; Exhibition: Graffiti… No for FGM

The Employment of Public Mural Design in Serving Feminist Issues in the Egyptian Society: an Educational and Practical Experiment With a Group of Students From the 4TH Level at the Mural Painting Section in 2018/2019; Exhibition: Graffiti… No for FGM

İstanbul Sözleşmesi Bağlamında Kadın Sünneti

Sosyal aktivistler ve feministler arasında, kadın sünneti (FGM- Female Genital Mutilation-, kadının genital yaralanması) ile mücadele önemli bir politika hedefidir. Bazen kadın sünneti veya kadın genital kesimi olarak adlandırılan FGM, kadınların ve kız çocuklarının klitorisini cinsel arzularını azaltmak ve cinsel onurunu evlilik öncesi korumak için kesmektir. Kadın sünneti ve kadın genital kesimi olarak tanımlanan iki kavram konusunda, hafif bir karışıklık da vardır. Aslında, iki terim birbirinin yerine kullanılabildiği halde, farklı iki çağrışım taşıdıkları da aşikârdır. Çoğunlukla müslüman ülkelerde yaygın olduğu söylenen uygulamanın muazzam bir maliyeti vardır: birçok kız kan kaybı veya enfeksiyon nedeniyle ölür. Çoğu travmatize olmuştur. Hayatta kalanlar evlilik ve gebelik süresince olumsuz sağlık etkileri yaşayabilirler. Irak Kürdistanı'ndan yeni bilgiler, sorunun Ortadoğu'da da yaygın olduğunu ortaya koymaktadır.&#x0D; Bu makalede önce konu ile ilgili ilgili kavramlar/terminoloji verilecek ve uygulanan farklı yöntemlerin/tiplendirilmesi değerlendirilecektir. Daha sonra bu işlemin gerekçesi, tarihçesi ve dinler açısından önemi, Batı’da klitoridektomi, bu uygulamanın kadın cinselliği ve kadın düşmanlığı ile ilişkisi ve İstanbul Sözleşmesi’nde kadın sünneti incelenecektir. İlgili konunun kadın bakış açısından ve feminist terminolojiden yeniden değerlendirilmesi ve bu konuda daha sonra yapılması muhtemel daha kapsamlı çalışmalara öncül olması amacını taşımaktadır.

The lived experience of female genital cutting (FGC) in Somali-Canadian women's daily lives.

Many of the Somali women who have immigrated to other countries, including Canada, have experienced Female Genital Circumcision/ Mutilation/ Cutting (FGC). While there is literature on the medical aspects of FGC, we were interested in understanding the daily life experiences and bodily sensations of Somali-Canadian women in the context of FGC. Fourteen women living in the Greater Toronto Area were interviewed. Interview data were analyzed using a phenomenological approach. We found that the memory of the ceremonial cutting was vivid but was frequently described with acceptance and resignation–as something that just is; that was normal given the particular context, familial and cultural, and their young age. Most of the women recounted experiencing pain and discomfort throughout their adult lives but were intent on not noticing or giving the pain any power; they considered themselves healthy. The following themes emerged from our interviews: Every Body Had It: Discussing FGC, I’m Normal Aren’t I?, and Feeling in My Body–all themes that work at normalizing their bodies in a society that they know views them as different. They dealt with both pain and pleasure in the context of their busy lives suggesting resilience in spite of the day-to-day difficulties of daily life.

Elimination of Female Genital Circumcision in Indonesian Transition Society: Revealing a Hope

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“You take the private part of her body, … you are taking a part of her life”: Voices of circumcised African migrant women on female genital circumcision (FGC) in Australia

ABSTRACTWestern countries working toward eradication of female genital mutilation require better inclusion of women originally from countries where the practice is prevalent. However, few authors have examined the knowledge, attitudes, and experiences of circumcised African migrant women in western countries. Our findings from 40 responses from self-reported survey and five in-depth interviews show that the participating African migrant women know the reasons behind female genital circumcision (FGC), are living with the negative consequences of FGC, and have a zero tolerance attitude toward the practice. Circumcised women are in the best position to define their health needs and champion global efforts to eradicate FGC.

Female Circumcision Between Extinction and Diffusion in Red Sea State, Sudan

The Study aims at identifying the quantitative rate of female circumcision in the Red Sea State during June 2016, where the diffusion of such phenomenon expresses the characteristics of the local community. The methodology of the study aimed at recognizing the extent of the diffusion of female circumcision in the ten localities through exploratory survey targeted at the female teachers and the mothers of the girls at the basic level and kindergarten age. The sample of the study consisted of (1060) items taken from (166) kindergarten and (198) basic level schools. The study arrived at main results which are summarized in the extinction of this phenomenon in certain housing units in Portsudan locality (Deim Medina and Darasalam). There are indicators that point to the fact that this phenomenon is dominating rural areas. If we made a comparison between last decade and the existing study, we find that there is remarkable development in the extinction indicator (68-72%). The study presented a number of recommendations; the most important are forming pressing community currencies for the purpose of close surveillance of rural areas, particularly Haya and Dordeib. In conclusion Female genital circumcision is still a serious problem in Red Sea State not only in rural area, but also among people living in urban areas. Elimination of poverty and improvement of education level will contribute to end this harmful phenomenon. Empowerment of people and polices is highly needed and effort should made to end terrible social and cultural norms which indigenize this practice.

Reconciling female genital circumcision with universal human rights.

One of the most challenging issues in cross-cultural bioethics concerns the long-standing socio-cultural practice of female genital circumcision (FGC), which is prevalent in many African countries and the Middle East as well as in some Asian and Western countries. It is commonly assumed that FGC, in all its versions, constitutes a gross violation of the universal human rights of health, physical integrity, and individual autonomy and hence should be abolished. This article, however, suggests a mediating approach according to which one form of FGC, the removal of the clitoris foreskin, can be made compatible with the high demands of universal human rights. The argument presupposes the idea that human rights are not absolutist by nature but can be framed in a meaningful, culturally sensitive way. It proposes important limiting conditions that must be met for the practice of FGC to be considered in accordance with the human rights agenda.

Clitoral keloids after female genital circumcision in early age

Though the number is on the increase throughout the world each day, an estimated 100 million females worldwide so far are known to have been subjected to genital mutilation. Female genital mutilation (FGM), which is also known as female circumcision (FC), is a lifethreatening practice that results in many long-lasting health complications in both women and children's lives, especially in underdeveloped regions where its practice is carried out under unhygienic conditions by people who lack medical knowledge even without using any anesthesia and equipment. Furthermore, this non-medical practice brings about a number of both immediate and later complications. In addition to causing sexually dysfunctional, the other immediate effects following the circumcision can be bleeding, infections. psychological shock, and not being able to pass urine. Other complications include repetitive infections of urinary tract, urinary genital tract fistula, pelvic pain, sexually dysfunctional, complications during delivery such as bleeding because of tears and cuts, and maternal and fatal morbidity in case of prolonged stages of labour, thus leading to an increase in mortalities. Despite the opposition of World Health Organization (WHO), UNICEF and the efforts of many Civil Works Organisations, along with the legislations of the Governments for its eradication, circumcision is still continuing to be practised in Africa. In this article the authors aimed to present a case of a ten-year-old child who has a two-year history of type 3 circumcision and discuss the complications of female circumcision performed at early ages.

CRITICAL ANALYSIS OF THE IMPACT OF PASTORALISM PRACTICE ON THE ATTITUDE TOWARDS SCHOOLING IN PRIMARY SCHOOL IN KENYA

Socio-cultural practice such as early marriage, female genital mutilation, circumcision, and pastoralism has hindered education in primary school in Kiliwehiru division of Banisa sub-county Mandera county of Kenya. Education is a right for all children in Kenya. Education make children to be meaningful people of the society and therefore all school going age children regardless of their physical, social, emotional and intellectual and others facing cultural problem like those from pastoral communities should be accommodated in the schools. Many interventions have been put in place to attain education for all. In order to achieve universal education millennium development goal, The Children Act 2002 states that every child has a fundamental right to education which is free and compulsory primary education to all to ensure that every child in Kenya has an opportunity to achieve an acceptable level of learning. The researcher felt that school going children from all levels in pastoral community’s moves together with their parents from one place to another following rainfall distribution patterns and security reasons. The pastoral ways of life subjected to school children affects the children attitudes towards school and hence force them to drop out of school. The pastoral ways promote cultural practice which have slow down results in absenteeism of learners from the school and hence broadens to hate for the school since they are forced to shift with parents and animals. The research will be meant to investigate the impact of pastoralism practice on the attitude towards schooling in primary school in Kenya. the objective of the study will be; to investigate the impact of socio-cultural practice in primary school education in Kihirehins division, aspects of early marriage on the child’s learning especially girl child, effects of FGM/circumcision on the pupils attitudes towards schooling; impacts of pastoral on the learners schooling, effects of religious/cultural beliefs of the learners altitude towards school; effects of parents’ attitude towards schooling their children especially girl-child and effects of poverty on the learners attitudes on schooling. Article visualizations:

Beliefs and Prevalence of Female Genital Circumcision among Pregnant Women Attending Ante-natal Clinic in a Mission Hospital in Uyo, Akwa Ibom State, Nigeria

Beliefs and Prevalence of Female Genital Circumcision among Pregnant Women Attending Ante-natal Clinic in a Mission Hospital in Uyo, Akwa Ibom State, Nigeria