Rhinotracheitis Research Articles

Chronic rhinosinusitis with osteomyelitis in a geriatric snow leopard (Panthera uncia)

AbstractA geriatric, 16‐year‐9‐month‐old, male snow leopard (Panthera uncia) under human care was necropsied after euthanasia over concerns for worsening chronic kidney disease and bilateral blindness. Gross and histological examinations revealed necrotising frontal sinusitis and osteomyelitis with mixed‐cellular rhinotracheitis, affecting the right frontal sinus, right nasal cavity and trachea, respectively, with intralesional and cilia‐associated Gram‐negative bacilli detected. Microbiological cultures were inconclusive, although Bordetella bronchiseptica and feline herpesvirus 1 were positive on PCR analysis. Immunohistochemistry, however, refuted active feline herpesvirus 1 involvement. Marked, chronic, bilateral, renal degeneration and fibrosis (chronic kidney disease), mild hepatic cirrhosis, bilateral chronic degenerative stifle joint disease and testicular intratubular seminoma were also detected on postmortem examination. No gross ocular or optic nerve lesions were identified; however, histology indicated bilateral diffuse outer retinal atrophy and retinal detachment, supportive of clinical blindness at time of death. This case represents the first report of chronic rhinosinusitis and osteomyelitis in a snow leopard.

A "plus one" strategy impacts replication of felid alphaherpesvirus 1, Mycoplasma and Chlamydia, and the metabolism of coinfected feline cells.

Coinfections are known to play an important role in disease progression and severity. Coinfections are common in cats, but no coinfection studies have investigated the in vitro dynamics between feline viral and bacterial pathogens. In this study, we performed co-culture and invasion assays to investigate the ability of common feline bacterial respiratory pathogens, Chlamydia felis and Mycoplasma felis, to replicate in and invade into Crandell-Rees feline kidney cells. We subsequently investigated how coinfection of these feline cells with each bacterium (C. felis or M. felis) and the common feline viral pathogen, felid alphaherpesvirus 1 (FHV-1), affects replication of each agent in this cell culture system. We also investigated the metabolic impact of each co-pathogen using metabolomic analysis of infected and coinfected cells. C. felis was able to invade and replicate in CRFKs, while M. felis had little capacity to invade. During coinfection, FHV-1 replication was minimally affected by the presence of either bacterial pathogen, but bacterial replication kinetics were more affected, particularly in M. felis. Both C. felis and M. felis replicated to higher levels in the presence of a secondary pathogen. Coinfections resulted in reprogramming of the glycolysis pathway, the pentose phosphate pathway, and the tricarboxylic acid cycle. The distinct metabolic profiles of coinfected cells compared to those of cells infected with just one of these three pathogens, as well as the impact of coinfections on viral or bacterial load, suggest strong interactions between these three pathogens and possible synergistic mechanisms enhancing virulence that need further investigation.IMPORTANCEIn the natural world, respiratory pathogens coexist within their hosts, but their dynamics and interactions remain largely unexplored. Herpesviruses, mycoplasmas, and chlamydias are common and significant causes of acute and chronic respiratory and system disease in animals and people, and these diseases are increasingly found to be polymicrobial. This study investigates how coinfection of feline cells between three respiratory pathogens of cats impact each other as well as the host innate metabolic response to infection. Each of these pathogens have been implicated in the induction of feline upper respiratory tract disease in cats, which is the leading cause of euthanasia in shelters. Understanding how coinfection impacts co-pathogenesis and host responses is critical for improving disease management.

MANEJO DO HERPES-VÍRUS FELINO: MEDICINA DE ABRIGO

Infection by feline herpesvirus type 1 (FHV-1) is one of the main respiratory diseases in cats, often associated with other pathogens. The virus, which has double-stranded DNA and is sensitive to disinfectants and adverse conditions, proliferates in high-density environments, such as shelters, where stress compromises the immunity of the felines. Transmission mainly occurs through contact with secretions from infected cats, leading to inflammation and cellular necrosis. Clinical symptoms vary depending on the viral load, route of exposure, and the cat's immune status. After an incubation period of 2 to 6 days, symptoms such as depression, sneezing, fever, and loss of appetite appear, followed by nasal and ocular discharge, which may progress to secondary bacterial infection. In severe cases, especially in young or debilitated cats, viral pneumonia may occur. Diagnosis of the feline respiratory complex (FRC) involves clinical and laboratory tests, such as PCR and X-rays, and screening of new cats is fundamental for controlling the infection. Clinical management focuses on stress reduction, hydration, nebulization, and nutritional support. Treatment includes antivirals to reduce viral replication, as well as antibiotics for secondary infections. Vaccination with live attenuated virus, starting at nine weeks of age, is crucial, although it does not provide full protection. Measures such as quarantine, isolation, and disinfection are essential to control the spread of FHV-1. Collaboration between shelters, veterinarians, and animal protection organizations is vital for implementing effective measures and ensuring the welfare of cats, recognizing the importance of early detection and proper management.

Replication kinetics and cytopathic effect of feline calicivirus in feline corneal epithelial cells.

To determine the replication kinetics and cytopathic effect (CPE) of feline calicivirus (FCV) in feline corneal epithelial cells (FCEC). Seven archived FCV isolates and one archived feline herpesvirus type 1 (FHV-1) isolate, previously obtained from eight domestic short hair cats. FCV RNA was extracted for sequencing using Illumina MiSeq, to identify three genomically diverse isolates for further testing. Following reference-based assembly, viral genomes were annotated and assessed. Superficial keratectomies were performed to isolate the corneal epithelium of cats and the cells were cultured invitro. FCEC were infected with the three chosen FCV isolates and one FHV-1 isolate at two different multiplicity of infection ratios (MOIs, 0.1 and 0.01 PFU/cell) and virus titration was assessed at 0, 2, 6, 12, 24, and 48 h post-infection (hpi). Viral identity was confirmed by RT-qPCR. Three genomically diverse FCV isolates were chosen for further assessment in the FCEC model. All infections of FCEC with FCV led to visible CPE, characterized by epithelial cell rounding and detachment from the plate by 24 hpi, while FHV-1 led to visible CPE within 48 hpi. All three of the FCV isolates replicated effectively in FCEC at both 0.1 and 0.01 MOI, with a peak increase in titer approximately 12-24 hpi. The results support the possible role of FCV as a primary pathogen of the feline ocular surface. FCV replicates in FCEC invitro, leading to profound CPE.

A novel neuro-attenuated vaccine candidate with excellent safety and protective efficacy against highly virulent Feline Herpesvirus-1

Feline herpesvirus 1 (FHV-1) is a major pathogen responsible for respiratory, ocular and nervous system symptoms in felines. FHV-1 can remain latenct in ganglia and is difficult to eliminate completely with drug treatment. Currently, commercially FHV-1 vaccines are not sufficiently effective and provide only limited durations of protection. To enhance vaccine efficacy and reduce latent virus in tissues, two gene deletion mutants of FHV-1 conveyed excellent proliferation ability, genetic stability and attenuated FHV-1 virulence were constructed by CRISPR/Cas9-mediated homologous recombination, designated as FHV-△US3 and FHV-△UL50. Recombinant FHV-1 induce stronger cellular and humoral immune responses, as well as better protective effects than those of commercial vaccines. Notably, FHV-△US3 and FHV-△UL50 reveal neuro-attenuated, as viral residue in the trigeminal ganglia are significantly reduced. The knockout of the UL50 gene in FHV-1 has not been previously reported. In this study, we aimed to evaluate the safety and immunogenicity of FHV-△UL50, highlighting its potential as a novel neuroattenuated vaccine candidate.

Recombinant feline herpesvirus-1 (FHV-1) expressing granulocyte colony-stimulating factor (G-CSF) exhibits enhanced protective efficacy in felines

Recombinant feline herpesvirus-1 (FHV-1) expressing granulocyte colony-stimulating factor (G-CSF) exhibits enhanced protective efficacy in felines

The Latest Prevalence, Isolation, and Molecular Characteristics of Feline Herpesvirus Type 1 in Yanji City, China.

Epidemiological surveys revealed that 33 of the 93 samples were positive for FHV-1, with the gD gene of these 33 samples exhibiting low variation, high homology, and no critical amino acid mutation. Feline herpesvirus type 1 (FHV-1), also known as feline viral rhinotracheitis (FVR) virus, is one of the main causes of URT disease in cats. All cats can become hosts of FHV-1, and the spread of this disease affects the protection of rare feline animals. Nasal swabs from cats with URT disease were collected at five veterinary clinics in Yanji City from 2022 to 2024. The purpose of this study was to isolate and investigate the epidemiology of FHV-1. The gD gene of the FHV-1 strain was cloned and inserted into the pMD-18T vector and transformed into a competent Escherichia coli strain. Subsequently, the gD gene of the positive samples was sequenced and phylogenetic analysis was performed to determine the genetic evolution relationship between the strains. We successfully isolated the FHV-1 strain YBYJ-1 in Yanji City for the first time. The diameter of the virus is approximately 150-160 nm. After 48 h of virus inoculation, the cells were round, isolated, and formed grape-like clusters. The gD gene of the virus was sequenced, and the length was 1125 bp, which proved the isolate was FHV-1. This study found that the genetic evolution of the FHV-1 gD gene was stable, expanding the molecular epidemiological data on FHV-1 in cats in Yanji City.

Feline respiratory disease complex: insights into the role of viral and bacterial co-infections.

Feline respiratory disease complex (FRDC) is a highly prevalent syndrome in cats that often result in fatal outcomes. FRDC etiology is complex, and often, multiple viral and bacterial pathogens are simultaneously associated with disease causation. There is limited information about the role of co-infections in pathogenesis and the current prevalence of pathogens in North America. We aimed to conduct a study using technical advances in molecular diagnosis and statistical modeling analysis to elucidate the occurrence of pathogens and how co-infections affect disease severity. We attained information from three diagnostic laboratories in North America regarding the occurrence of Bordetella bronchiseptica, Chlamydia felis, Mycoplasma, Felid alphaherpesvirus 1 (FeHV-1), feline calicivirus (FCV), and influenza A, along with age, seasonality, sex, and clinical signs. We also evaluated the role of co-infections in disease severity. These pathogens were also investigated in clinically normal cats (control). The most detected pathogens were Mycoplasma, FCV, and FeHV-1. Most pathogens were detected in the control group, highlighting the challenge of interpreting positive testing results. Co-infections of Mycoplasma and FCV, as well as Mycoplasma and FeHV-1, were important predictors of disease severity. Age, sex, and season had a minor impact on pathogen occurrence. This study provides new insights into FRDC and underlines the relevance of diagnostic panels to screen for a range of pathogens, providing knowledge for timely diagnosis and therapeutic interventions.

Green tea extract reduces viral proliferation and ROS production during Feline Herpesvirus type-1 (FHV-1) infection

BackgroundFeline Herpesvirus type-1 (FHV-1) is a worldwide spread pathogen responsible for viral rhinotracheitis and conjunctivitis in cats that, in the most severe cases, can lead to death. Despite the availability of a variety of antiviral medications to treat this illness, mainly characterized by virostatic drugs that alter DNA replication, their use is often debated. Phytotherapeutic treatments are a little-explored field for FHV-1 infections and reactivations. In this scenario, natural compounds could provide several advantages, such as reduced side effects, less resistance and low toxicity. The purpose of this study was to explore the potential inhibitory effects of the green tea extract (GTE), consisting of 50% of polyphenols, on FHV-1 infection and reactive oxygen species (ROS) production.ResultsCrandell-Reese feline kidney (CRFK) cells were treated with different doses of GTE (10–400 µg/mL) during the viral adsorption and throughout the following 24 h. The MTT and TCID50 assays were performed to determine the cytotoxicity and the EC50 of the extract, determining the amounts of GTE used for the subsequent investigations. The western blot assay showed a drastic reduction in the expression of viral glycoproteins (i.e., gB and gI) after GTE treatment. GTE induced not only a suppression in viral proliferation but also in the phosphorylation of Akt protein, generally involved in viral entry. Moreover, the increase in cell proliferation observed in infected cells upon GTE addition was supported by enhanced expression of Bcl-2 and Bcl-xL anti-apoptotic proteins. Finally, GTE antioxidant activity was evaluated by dichloro-dihydro-fluorescein diacetate (DCFH-DA) and total antioxidant capacity (TAC) assays. The ROS burst observed during FHV-1 infection was mitigated after GTE treatment, leading to a reduction in the oxidative imbalance.ConclusionsAlthough further clinical trials are necessary, this study demonstrated that the GTE could potentially serve as natural inhibitor of FHV-1 proliferation, by reducing viral entry. Moreover, it is plausible that the extract could inhibit apoptosis by modulating the intrinsic pathway, thus affecting ROS production.

Spectrum detection and analysis of the epidemiological characteristics of infectious pathogens in the feline respiratory tract.

Our study was designed to investigate the original spectrum of feline respiratory tract infection and to provide a scientific basis for the clinical diagnosis and treatment of feline respiratory infections and for precise prevention and control measures. A total of 400 cats with upper respiratory tract infections from animal hospitals in 12 provinces in China were examined from November 2022 to October 2023 to investigate the epidemiology of feline calicivirus (FCV), feline herpes virus type 1 (FHV-1), influenza A virus (IAV), Mycoplasma felis, Chlamydia felis, and Bordetella bronchiseptica through loop-mediated isothermal amplification (LAMP) with microfluidic chip detection. The results showed that 396 of the 400 samples tested were positive for at least one of these pathogens, with an overall detection rate of 99.00%. The detection rates were as follows: FCV, 36.00% (144/400); M. felis, 34.00% (136/400); FHV-1, 21.50% (86/400); C. felis, 15.75% (63/400); B. b, 13.00% (52/400); IAV, 4.50% (18/400). There were no statistically significant differences in the detection rates of respiratory pathogens between different sexes, ages, seasons, breeds, or regions (P > 0.05). There were 88 mixed infections, giving a total mixed infection rate of 22.00% (88/400). It is worth noting that the detection rate of FCV at different ages and of FHV-1 in different sexes showed significant differences (P < 0.05). The highest rate of FCV infection was found in animals that were 1 to 2 years old, and the rate of FHV-1 infection in male cats was higher than that in female cats. The results showed that the spectrum of feline respiratory pathogens is complex, with diverse epidemiological characteristics and mixed infections, and some differences among different respiratory pathogens were found with regard to the sex, age, and breed of the cat. Studies should be continued to provide a scientific basis for precise prevention and control of feline respiratory diseases.

Evaluation of feline mesenchymal stem cell susceptibility to feline viruses

Feline mesenchymal stem cells (fMSCs) are well known for their robust differentiation capabilities and are commonly used in studying immune-related diseases in cats. Despite their importance, the susceptibility of fMSCs to viral infections remains uncertain. This study aimed to assess the susceptibility of feline adipose-derived mesenchymal stem cells (fAD-MSCs) and feline umbilical cord-derived mesenchymal stem cells (fUC-MSCs) to common feline viruses, including feline coronavirus (FCoV), feline herpesvirus type 1 (FHV-1), and feline panleukopenia virus (FPV). The results demonstrated that both FCoV and FHV-1 were able to infect both types of cells, while FPV did not exhibit cytopathic effects on fUC-MSCs. Furthermore, all three viruses were successfully isolated from fAD-MSCs. These findings suggest that certain feline viruses can replicate in fMSCs, indicating potential limitations in using fMSCs for treating viral diseases caused by these specific viruses. This study has important clinical implications for veterinarians, particularly in the management of viral diseases.

Identification, Genetic Characterization, and Pathogenicity of Three Feline Herpesvirus Type 1 Isolates from Domestic Cats in China.

(1) Background: Feline herpesvirus (FHV-1) is a significant pathogen in cats, causing respiratory and ocular diseases with consequential economic and welfare implications. (2) Methods: This study aimed to isolate and characterize FHV-1 from clinical samples and assess its pathogenicity. We collected 35 nasal and ocular swabs from cats showing symptoms of upper respiratory tract infection and FHV positivity detected by polymerase chain reaction (PCR). Viral isolation was carried out using feline kidney (F81) cell lines. Confirmation of FHV-1 presence was achieved through PCR detection, sequencing, electron microscopy, and indirect immunofluorescence assay. The isolated strains were further characterized by evaluating their titers, growth kinetics, and genetic characteristics. Additionally, we assessed the pathogenicity of the isolated strains in a feline model, monitoring clinical signs, viral shedding, and histopathological changes. (3) Results: Three strains of FHV-1 were isolated, purified, and identified. The isolated FHV-1 strains exhibited high homology among themselves and with domestic isolates and FHV-1 viruses from around the world. However, they showed varying degrees of virulence, with one strain (FHV-A1) causing severe clinical signs and histopathological lesions. (4) Conclusion: This study advances our understanding of the genetic and pathogenic characteristics of FHV-1 in China. These findings underscore FHV-A1 isolate as a potentially ideal candidate for establishing a challenge model and as a potential vaccine strain for vaccine development.

Advances in the immunoescape mechanisms exploited by alphaherpesviruses.

Alphaherpesviruses, categorized as viruses with linear DNA composed of two complementary strands, can potentially to induce diseases in both humans and animals as pathogens. Mature viral particles comprise of a core, capsid, tegument, and envelope. While herpesvirus infection can elicit robust immune and inflammatory reactions in the host, its persistence stems from its prolonged interaction with the host, fostering a diverse array of immunoescape mechanisms. In recent years, significant advancements have been achieved in comprehending the immunoescape tactics employed by alphaherpesviruses, including pseudorabies virus (PRV), herpes simplex virus (HSV), varicella-zoster virus (VZV), feline herpesvirus (FeHV), equine herpesvirus (EHV), and caprine herpesvirus type I (CpHV-1). Researchers have unveiled the intricate adaptive mechanisms existing between viruses and their natural hosts. This review endeavors to illuminate the research advancements concerning the immunoescape mechanisms of alphaherpesviruses by delineating the pertinent proteins and genes involved in virus immunity. It aims to furnish valuable insights for further research on related mechanisms and vaccine development, ultimately contributing to virus control and containment efforts.

Clinical efficacy studies of the vaccine against feline panleukopenia, calicivirus infection and viral rhinotracheitis Carnifel PCH in kittens

Clinical efficacy studies of the vaccine against feline panleukopenia, calicivirus infection and viral rhinotracheitis Carnifel PCH in kittens

Rapid lateral flow immunoassay for fluorescence detection of canine distemper virus (CDV).

Canine distemper virus (CDV) is a highly contagious and potentially lethal virus that affects dogs and other members of the Canidae family, including wolves, foxes, and coyotes. Here, we present a fluorescent lateral flow immunoassay (FLFA) platform for the detection of CDV, which utilizes fluorescent microspheres - fusion protein monoclonal antibody (mAb)-labeled monoclonal antibody. The assay detected CDV within 5 min, with a detection limit threshold of 3 × 102 TCID50/mL. Notably, the assay demonstrated no cross-reactivity with canine parvovirus, canine coronavirus, canine adenovirus, feline calicivirus, feline herpesvirus, or feline parvovirus. Field and clinical applicability of the assay was evaluated using 63 field samples, including 30 canine fecal samples, 18 swab samples, and 15 blood samples. The coincidence rate between the detection results of clinical samples obtained through FLFA and reverse transcription polymerase chain reaction (RT-PCR) was 96.83%. Thus, this assay offers a significant advancement for the rapid diagnosis of CDV at the point of care.

Viral pathogens in domestic cats in southern Italy: A retrospective analysis in Sicily, 2020–2022

A retrospective study was carried out on selected feline viral pathogens detected in domestic cat in Sicily, southern Italy. Samples from 64 cats, collected from 2020 to 2022, were analysed for the presence of feline panleukopenia virus, canine parvovirus type 2 (CPV-2), feline coronavirus (FCoV), feline calicivirus (FCV), feline herpesvirus type 1, norovirus (NoV), and rotavirus (RoV). Single (45 %) or mixed (38 %) viral infections were detected. FPV, related with other Italian FPV strains, remains the main viral cause of infection (66 %). CPV-2c Asian lineage strains (3 %) were detected for the first time in domestic cats in Europe. FCoV (29.6 %), either enteric or systemic, and systemic FCV (18.7 %) infections were detected in positive cats. Less commonly reported viruses (GIV.2/GVI.2 NoVs, RoV), potentially related to the animal/human interface, were detected at lower rates as well (5 %). The present epidemiological data suggest the need to improve disease prevention, immunization, and biosecurity strategies.

Molecular epidemiology and strain diversity of circulating feline Calicivirus in Thai cats.

Feline calicivirus (FCV) is a significant viral pathogen causing upper respiratory tract and oral diseases in cats. The emergence of the virulent systemic FCV variant (VS-FCV) has raised global concern in the past decade. This study aims to explore the epidemiology, genetic characterization, and diversity of FCV strains circulating among Thai cats. Various sample types, including nasal, oral, and oropharyngeal swabs and fresh tissues, were collected from 184 cats across different regions of Thailand from 2016 to 2021. Using reverse transcription real-time polymerase chain reaction (RT-qPCR), FCV infection was investigated, with additional screening for feline herpesvirus-1 (FHV-1) by qPCR. The detection rates for FCV, FHV-1, and co-infection were 46.7, 65.8, and 31.5%, respectively. Significantly, the odds ratio (OR) revealed a strong association between the detection of a single FCV and the presence of gingivostomatitis lesions (OR: 7.15, 95% CI: 1.89-26.99, p = 0.004). In addition, FCV detection is notably less likely in vaccinated cats (OR: 0.22, 95% CI: 0.07-0.75, p = 0.015). Amino acid sequence analysis based on the VP1 major capsid protein gene of the 14 FCV-Thai (FCV-TH) strains revealed genetic diversity compared to the other 43 global strains (0 to 86.6%). Intriguingly, a vaccine-like FCV variant was detected in one cat. In summary, this study provides insights into the epidemiology and molecular characteristics of FCV diversity within the Thai cat population for the first time. The identification of unique physicochemical characteristics in the capsid hypervariable region of some FCV-TH strains challenges previous hypotheses. Therefore, further exploration of vaccine-like FCV variants is crucial for a comprehensive understanding and to improve viral prevention and control strategies.

Isolation and characterization of Chlamydia felis and its pathogenesis in cats

Feline upper respiratory tract disease (URTD) is a common but complicated disease that occurs in domestic cats, worldwide. 396 cats in Guangxi Province, China were screened for URTD-associated pathogens from March 2022 to August 2023. Mycoplasma felis was found to be the most prevalent infectious agent with a positivity rate of 24.75 %, followed by feline calicivirus (FCV), Chlamydia felis, feline herpesvirus 1 (FHV-1) and feline influenza A virus (FeIAV) with rates of 15.91, 11.62, 5.56 and 1.52 %, respectively. In particular, C. felis and M. felis were found in 13 of 55 co-infected cats. Of the 46 C. felis-positive samples, one strain, named as GXNN36, was successfully isolated using chicken embryos and it was characterized both in vivo and in vitro. For the cat studies, both high- and low-dose challenged groups showed severe conjunctivitis, accompanied by transient fever and respiratory symptoms. C. felis replicated well in turbinate, trachea and lung tissues with high copy numbers and the infection subsequently spread to the livers, spleens, pancreas, kidneys, hearts and intestines. These findings will help our understanding of the role of C. felis in feline URTD and provide a valuable model to evaluate the efficacy of vaccines and therapeutic remedies in the future.

Epidemiological Surveillance of Respiratory Diseases in Urban Stray Cats in Shanghai.

Urban stray cats are cats without owners that survive in the wild for extended periods of time. They are one of the most common stray animals in cities, and as such, monitoring the pathogens carried by urban stray cats is an important component of urban epidemiological surveillance. In order to understand the prevalence of respiratory diseases in urban stray cats in Shanghai and provide scientific evidence for the development of targeted prevention and control strategies for respiratory diseases in stray cats, we collected 374 ocular, nasal, and oropharyngeal swabs from urban stray cats in Shanghai from January 2022 to December 2022. After RNA extraction, we used real-time PCR to detect six respiratory pathogens, including influenza A virus, feline calicivirus, feline herpesvirus type 1, Mycoplasma, Chlamydia, and Bordetella bronchiseptica. The results showed that among the 374 samples, 146 tested positive, with a positivity rate of 39.04%. The highest positivity rate was observed for Mycoplasma felis at 18.72% (70/374), followed by Chlamydia felis at 11.76% (44/374), feline calicivirus at 3.74% (14/374), feline herpesvirus 1 at 3.48% (13/374), Bordetella bronchiseptica at 1.34% (5/374), and influenza A virus was not detected. The highest positivity rate for Mycoplasma felis was in Minhang District at 31.94% (23/72), while Chlamydia felis and Bordetella bronchiseptica had the highest positivity rates in Jiading District at 23.53% (8/34) and 5.88% (2/34), respectively. The highest positivity rates for feline calicivirus and feline herpesvirus 1 were both observed in Qingpu District, at 14.46% (12/83) and 9.64% (8/83), respectively. A total of 36 samples showed mixed infections with two or more pathogens, with Mycoplasma felis being involved in 32 of these mixed infections, with the highest number of mixed infections being with Chlamydia felis at 25 samples. Respiratory pathogen positivity was detected throughout the year, with peak detection rates in summer and winter. The positivity rates of cat respiratory pathogens in different seasons showed statistical differences (χ2 = 27.73, p < 0.01). There was no statistical difference in the positivity rates of respiratory pathogens between cats of different genders (χ2 = 0.92, p > 0.05). The positivity rates of respiratory pathogens in cats of different age groups showed statistical differences (χ2 = 44.41, p < 0.01). Mycoplasma felis and Chlamydia felis were the main pathogens causing respiratory infections in stray cats, with Mycoplasma felis showing a much higher positivity rate than other respiratory pathogens and often co-infecting with Chlamydia felis and feline calicivirus. The positivity rate of Mycoplasma felis was high in summer, autumn, and winter, with no statistical difference between seasons. These results indicate a serious overall prevalence of respiratory pathogens in urban stray cats in the Shanghai area, showing seasonal trends and mixed infections with other pathogens. These findings suggest the need for comprehensive prevention and control measures to address respiratory pathogen infections in urban stray cats in the Shanghai area.

A Scoping Review of the Evidence on Prevalence of Feline Upper Respiratory Tract Infections and Associated Risk Factors.

Feline upper respiratory tract infections (URI) are of concern, especially in animal shelters. This scoping review identifies epidemiological literature on URI as caused by feline herpesvirus (FHV), feline calicivirus (FCV), Chlamydia felis, Mycoplasma felis and Bordetella bronchiseptica. Four databases were searched, studies were screened, and data were extracted on a standardised template. We described patterns in spatial locations of the studies, the range of pathogens and diagnostic tests, cohort characteristics and the findings of risk factor analyses. A total of 90 articles were selected for final data extraction. There was diversity in sampling methods, precluding quantitative meta-analysis of prevalence reports. FHV was most frequently studied (n = 57/90). The most popular sampling site was conjunctival swabbing (n = 43). Most studies (n = 57) used polymerase chain reaction (PCR) to confirm diagnosis. Approximately one-third (n = 32/90) of the studies included sheltered felines. This review explores the current state of knowledge on the epidemiology and risk factors of feline URI. Assessing the impact of risk factors has the potential to alleviate the severity of disease, especially in shelters; however, the results were not easily pooled as the studies used inconsistent approaches. We present recommendations for ongoing epidemiological research on feline URI to provide a more structured framework and define research questions for future systematic reviews.