Cow Foot Research Articles

Sosialisasi Penerapan Hidup Sehat dan Pencegahan Penyakit Akibat Hewan Ternak di Desa Kuripan Timur Kecamatan Kuripan

Clean and Healthy Living Behavior is an attempt to provide a learning experience or create a condition for individuals, families, groups and society. By opening lines of communication, providing information, andconduct education to increase knowledge as well as attitudes and behavior, through leadership approach, atmosphere building, and empowerment public. the maintenance of livestock is carried out by the people in East Kuripan, namely caring for livestock near the homes or residential areas. through such a maintenance system it becomes one of the sources of disease spread which is very wide and easy. Various types of diseases that often arise as a result of animals that can be transmitted to humans, namely, Bovine Spongiform Encephalopathy (BSE) or mad cow foot and mouth disease (FMD), Brucellosis disease is caused by a lack of attention to the health of these livestock. Through the socialization held, it is hoped that it can change the lifestyle of the community, especially in how to raise livestock.

Sigmoid colon perforation secondary to blunt abdominal trauma from cow hoof

Abdominal discomfort is one of the most prevalent complaints presented to the emergency department. When making a clinical diagnosis, blunt trauma with substantial visceral injuries requires a high index of suspicion. The patient went to the emergency room after experiencing lower abdomen discomfort and a fever for two days. He was 40years old. He says he was injured two days earlier when a cow foot landed on his stomach, causing mild blunt injuries. When examined, he is delicate all the way down in his lower belly. Results from the lab indicated a higher-than-normal total leucocyte count. Echogenic bowel thickening is seen on point-of-care ultrasonography (PoCUS) of the lower abdomen. Abdominal CT with contrast revealed oedema, heterogeneous enhancement, and a focal stretch of thickened circumferential mural including the sigmoid colon and peri-colonic fat stranding. Biopsy results from a sigmoidoscopy revealed significant sigmoid colon constriction and localized areas of active inflammation. Stricture development after a Sigmoid hole caused by a cow foot injury is an extremely unusual occurrence. This case emphasizes the need of a thorough history and physical examination, especially in a high-pressure emergency scenario, and the value of using ultrasonography at the bedside to make a definitive diagnosis and improve patient care. Regardless of the severity of abdominal damage caused by cattle collision, early imaging should be explored since delaying action might result in poor results.

Developments in managing dairy cow foot health

When it comes to herd health issues in the GB dairy herd, lameness is currently heading the agenda. Practicing cattle veterinary surgeons might interpret this as a cause for alarm or as an opportunity. The past decade has seen some important developments to reinforce an evidence-based approach to helping farmers improve foot health. With the correct training, veterinary surgeons should feel confident that their input will be both effective and valued.

Short communication: Evaluation of a foot dirtiness scoring system for dairy cows

Lameness in dairy cattle is an important health and welfare concern directly affecting the economic benefits of farmers. Although foot dirtiness is a recognized risk factor for diseases inducing lameness, there is a lack of scoring systems that focus specifically on the foot. Therefore, the aim of this study was to evaluate the reliability of a 3-point dirtiness scoring system recently conceived for the assessment of the dirtiness present at the lower legs and claws of dairy cows. The scores of both the lateral and back views from 4 unfamiliar raters at 4 different times were used to evaluate interrater reliability (3 times) and intrarater scoring consistency (1 time). The findings of this investigation revealed that coefficients for interrater agreement (0.38, 0.62 and 0.63) and rating concordance (0.55, 0.75 and 0.74) of back-view scorings improved over time and were superior or similar to those obtained from lateral-view evaluations (coefficients for interrater agreement = 0.20, 0.35, and 0.69; coefficients for rating concordance = 0.48, 0.59, and 0.78). Additionally, the scoring consistency of the raters using the back-view grid was excellent (Cronbach's α = 0.93). The results suggest that the 3-point back-view dirtiness scoring grid may provide dairy consultants and farmers a reliable and easy tool for assessing cow foot dirtiness.

Inter-observer agreement between two observers for bovine digital dermatitis identification in New Zealand using digital photographs

ABSTRACTAims: To assess the inter-observer agreement for detecting bovine digital dermatitis (BDD) lesions in digital colour photographs of the hind feet of cows, which had been taken while the animals were standing to be milked, between two trained observers.Methods: Thirty-six photographs were selected from a total of 184 photographs held by the first author (R1), who had classified them as negative (n=11) or positive (n=25) for BDD. They were delivered to a technician (R2) who had previously visually inspected cattle for BDD lesions, and who then recorded the photographs as being either BDD-positive or BDD-negative. The percentage agreement between R1 and R2, and two other inter-observer agreement statistics, Cohen’s κ and Gwet’s first-order chance correction agreement coefficient (AC1), were calculated. The cumulative membership probabilities of Cohen’s κ and Gwet’s AC1 were then calculated for different benchmark ranges of κ.Results: The percentage agreement between R1 and R2 was 33/36 (92%), Cohen’s κ was 0.80 (95% CI=0.57–1.0) and Gwet’s AC1 was 0.86 (95% CI=0.69–1.0). Based on the cumulative membership probabilities for Gwet’s AC1, there was 75% probability that the two observers had almost perfect agreement (κ≥0.81). For both Cohen’s κ and Gwet’s AC1, there was >95% probability that the two observers had at least substantial agreement (κ≥0.61).Conclusions: The two trained observers had at least substantial agreement in identifying from a digital photograph as to whether BDD lesions were present or absent. Therefore results from the two could be used interchangeably.Clinical Relevance: Visual assessment for BDD lesions in the milking parlour can be subjective. However a high agreement between these two trained BDD inspectors means BDD prevalence reported from different regions in New Zealand by these two can be directly compared.

Evaluation of a biocide footbath solution in the occurrence and healing of digital dermatitis lesions in dairy cows: A clinical trial

The objective of this study was to evaluate the effect of the implementation of different footbathing practices using a new biocide solution (Pink-Step™, Qalian, France) in the healing and the occurrence of bovine digital dermatitis (bDD) lesions. The investigation was conducted through a controlled within cow clinical trial in which the hind feet of cows from each farm were allocated either to the control group or to a moderate (MR) or (IR) intensive footbath-regimen groups. The trial involved 1036 cows (2072 feet) from 10 dairy farms located in western France where bDD was endemic. Split-footbaths were placed at the exit of the milking parlor of each farm, allowing the biocide to be administered to one side of the cows while using the other empty side as a negative control. The administration frequency for MR was of 2 days/week/1st-month, then 2 days/2 weeks/2nd-month, and then 2 days/month, and for IR was of 2 days/week/1st-2nd months, and then 2 days/2 weeks. Footbaths were administered during 140 days (approx.), and feet were evaluated for the at least once a month in the milking parlor. Nested survival models were used to estimate the relative impact of the footbath regimens and other concomitant risk factors on the time that bDD lesions occurred or healed. No effect of Pink-Step™ was evidenced on the bDD occurrence during the trial. The risk for bDD occurrence was increased by poor feet cleanliness at both the cow (HR 1.69, CI 1.21–2.39) and farm level (HR 2.06, CI 1.44–2.94). Otherwise, the use of Pink-Step™ in an IR was effective in improving the healing of bDD lesions (HR 1.79, CI 1.12–2.88). The time to healing was also improved in inactive lesions (HR 2.19, CI 1.42–3.37). Conversely, the time to healing was delayed in feet receiving hoof-trimming (HR 0.41, CI 0.26–0.62), in cows with a contralateral bDD lesion (HR 0.32, CI 0.22–0.46) or in late lactation (HR 0.61, CI 0.43–0.85), and finally in farms with more than 100 cows (HR 0.48, CI 0.34–0.67). These findings reinforce the crucial role of hygiene in bDD dynamics and highlight the importance of implementing multiple control measures simultaneously, such as hygiene improvements in the barn, early detection and treatment of bDD lesions and the correct usage of individual and collective treatments. The implementation of Pink-Step™ represents a promising strategy for reducing the persistence of bDD lesions in affected herds.

Optimising lameness detection in dairy cattle by using handheld infrared thermometers.

Lameness is one of the most serious economic and welfare issues in the dairy industry. Early detection of lameness can be difficult, but provision of early treatment is crucial. Previous studies have used infrared thermography to show that increased foot temperature (FT) is associated with lameness and foot lesions. However, poor accuracy has limited the management application potential. This study analysed ambient‐temperature (AT)‐adjusted foot‐surface temperatures and temperature differences between the hind feet of individual cows to enhance lameness detection. Cow FTs were recorded on a 990‐cow farm using an infrared thermometer fortnightly for 6 months. Additionally, mobility level was scored using the AHDB Dairy 4‐point scale. The averages of FTs and ATs were 23.83 ± 0.03°C and 13.99 ± 1.60°C, respectively. The FT of cows with lameness was significantly higher than that of cows without lameness (P < 0.001). Increases in FTs correlated with the mobility score (MS) (P < 0.001). According to receiver operating characteristic (ROC) curves, the optimal threshold based on actual FTs was 23.3°C with 78.5% sensitivity and 39.2% specificity. However, the ROC curve for the AT‐adjusted FT and FT difference parameters showed minimal improvements over the FT in detecting lameness. In conclusion, the infrared thermometer results demonstrated the association between elevated FTs and lameness, but further improvements to this detection technique will be required before it can be implemented as a management tool for detecting cows that could benefit from treatment. With additional validation, the technique could be used as a screening device to identify cows in need of further assessment.

Can digital dermatitis be detected in the milking parlor without washing cows' feet?

Scoring digital dermatitis (DD) in the milking parlor after washing the hind feet of cows has been recommended. However, farmers might be reluctant to perform this washing due to compromised udder hygiene. The objective of this study was to evaluate if DD prevalence can be determined without the washing procedure. A total of 4510 cows from 22 dairy herds were scored for DD in the milking parlor without and with washing their hind feet. In all DD infected herds, DD prevalence was higher when scored with washing. The two methods were highly correlated (r=0.987, P<0.001). Scoring with washing resulted in a median of 32% more detected DD cases with a large variation between herds. Overall, DD measurements without washing the feet of cows should be interpreted with caution.

Claw length recommendations for dairy cow foot trimming

The aim was to describe variation in length of the dorsal hoof wall in contact with the dermis for cows on a single farm, and hence, derive minimum appropriate claw...

Does digital dermatitis cause hoof conformation changes in its early clinical stage?

It is well described how hoof conformation in dairy cattle changes over time because of variation in physiology or production systems. Decreased production and well-being associated with hoof overgrowth has caused a whole hoof-trimming industry to be built, with the objective of reestablishing the optimal balance and claw angle and preventing lameness. The feet of cows with severe clinical digital dermatitis (DD) undergo dramatic transformation that is easily recognizable. It is not uncommon to observe "square feet" on cattle with DD, where the heel has overgrown such that the animal alters its gait and wears down the toe, which decreases the dorsal length of the claw, sometimes to the same length as the heel. Consequently, cattle become painful and lame not only from the ulcerated DD lesion, but also from the extra wear and trauma of the toe or the white line area. Changes in hoof conformation during the early or less severe stages of DD have not been described. The objective of this study was to describe the changes in hoof conformation caused by early clinical DD lesions.

Dairy farmers' attitudes and intentions towards improving dairy cow foot health

Dairy cow foot health is a subject of concern because it is considered to be the most important welfare problem in dairy farming and causes economic losses for the farmer. In order to improve dairy cow foot health it is important to take into account the attitude and intention of dairy farmers. In our study the objective was to gain insight into the attitude and intention of dairy farmers to take action to improve dairy cow foot health and determine drivers and barriers to take action, using the Theory of Planned Behavior. Five hundred Dutch dairy farmers were selected randomly and were invited by email to fill in an online questionnaire. The questionnaire included questions about respondents' intentions, attitudes, subjective norms and perceived behavioral control and was extended with questions about personal normative beliefs. With information from such a framework, solution strategies for the improvement of dairy cow foot health can be proposed. The results showed that almost 70% of the dairy farmers had an intention to take action to improve dairy cow foot health. Most important drivers seem to be the achievement of better foot health with cost-effective measures. Possible barriers to taking action were labor efficiency and a long interval between taking action and seeing an improvement in dairy cow foot health. The feed advisor and foot trimmer seemed to have most influence on intentions to take action to improve dairy cow foot health. Most farmers seemed to be satisfied with the foot health status at their farm, which probably weakens the intention for foot health improvement, especially compared to other issues which farmers experience as more urgent. Subclinical foot disorders (where cows are not visibly lame) were not valued as important with respect to animal welfare. Furthermore, 25% of the respondents did not believe cows could suffer pain. Animal welfare, especially the provision of good care for the cows, was valued as important but was not related to intention to improve dairy cow foot health. The cost-effectiveness of measures seemed to be more important. Providing more information on the effects of taking intervention measures might stimulate farmers to take action to achieve improvement in dairy cow foot health.

Measures to improve dairy cow foot health: consequences for farmer income and dairy cow welfare

Dairy farming in western countries with cubicle housing is an efficient way of dairy farming. Though, a disadvantage is the high prevalence and incidence of foot disorders (clinical and subclinical), which cause high economic losses and also seriously impair the welfare of dairy cattle. To point out the importance of reducing the amount and severity of foot disorders, advice to farmers should include information about the scale of the problem and the consequences in terms of economics and animal welfare. To provide support in making decisions on implementing intervention measures, insight into costs and benefits of different measures should be available. The objective of this study, therefore, is to provide more insight into the costs and benefits, for farmer and cow, of different intervention measures to improve dairy cow foot health. Intervention measures were modeled when they were applicable on a dairy farm with cubicle housing and when sufficient information was available in literature. Net costs were calculated as the difference between the costs of the measure and the economic benefits resulting from the measure. Welfare benefits were calculated as well. Cost-effective measures are: improving lying surface (mattress and bedding, €7 and €1/cow per year, respectively), reducing stocking density (break even) and performing additional foot trimming (€1/cow per year). Simultaneously, these measures have a relative high welfare benefit. Labor costs play an important role in the cost-effectiveness of labor-intensive measures. More insight into cost-effectiveness and welfare benefits of intervention measures can help to prioritize when choosing between intervention measures.

Computerized identification and classification of stance phases as made by front or hind feet of walking cows based on 3-dimensional ground reaction forces

Lameness is a frequent disorder in dairy cows and in large dairy herds manual lameness detection is a time-consuming task. This study describes a method for automatic identification of stance phases in walking cows, and their classification as made by a front or a hind foot based on ground reaction force information. Features were derived from measurements made using two parallel 3-dimensional force plates. The approach presented is based on clustering of Centre of Pressure (COP) trace points over space and time, combined with logical sequencing of stance phases based on the dynamics of quadrupedal walking. The clusters were identified as full or truncated (incomplete) stance phases furthermore the stance phases were classified as originating from a front or hind foot. Data from 370 walking trials made by 9 cows on 5 experiment days were used to test the method. Four cows were moderately lame at experimental onset. On average 5.1 stance phases per cow per trial were obtained of which 3.2 were classified as full stance phases and therefore appropriate for further gait analysis (the latter not being the scope of this study). Of the 2617 identified clusters 1844 were classified as stance phases, of these 1146 (62%) were automatically identified as full stance phases and classified as made by a front or hind foot. As intended, the procedures did not favour identification of stance phases of healthy cows over lame cows. In addition, a human observer evaluated the stance phases by visual inspection, revealing a very low discrepancy (3.5%) between manual and automated approaches. Further, a sensitivity test indicated large robustness in the automatic procedures. In conclusion, the experimental setup combined with the computerized procedures described in the present study resulted in a high number of stance phases obtained per trial. It is thus a combination which has the potential to enable unsupervised gait analysis based on data collected automatically on-farm.

Chemical composition and anxiolytic-like effects of the Bauhinia platypetala

The pantropical genus Bauhinia, Fabaceae, known popularly as cow's foot, is widely used in folk medicine as antidiabetic. Behavioral effects of the ethanolic extract and ethereal, aqueous and ethyl acetate fractions from B. platypetala Benth. ex Hemsl. leaves were studied in male Swiss mice. The ethanolic extract and fractions were administered intraperitoneally and its effects on spontaneous motor activity (total motility, locomotion, rearing and grooming behavior) were monitored. Anxiolytic-like properties were studied in the elevated plus-maze test and the possible antidepressant-like actions were evaluated in the forced swimming test. The results revealed that only the highest dose of the ethereal fraction (50 mg/kg, i.p.) caused a significant decrease in total motility, locomotion and rearing. Sole dose injected (50 mg/kg) of ethanolic extract and ethereal fractions increased the exploration of the elevated plus-maze open arms in a similar way to that of diazepam (2 mg/kg, i.p.). In the forced swimming test, the ethanolic extract and their fractions (12.5, 25 or 50 mg/kg) was not as effective as paroxetine (10 or 20 mg/kg, i.p.) and imipramine (25 or 50 mg/kg, i.p.) in reducing immobility. These results suggest that some of the components of the ethanolic extract and of the ethereal fraction from B. platypetala, such as p-cymene, phytol, D-lactic acid, hexadecanoic acid, among others, may have anxiolytic-like properties, which deserve further investigation. Furthermore, the results obtained indicate that ethanolic extract from B. platypetala and their fractions do not present antidepressive properties. However, these properties cannot be related to the chemical constituents identified in this specie.

Foot disorders in dairy cattle: impact on cow and dairy farmer

AbstractThis paper considers the economic consequences and the welfare impact of foot disorders in dairy cattle and the association between them, taking into account clinical and subclinical foot disorders. In dairy farming with cubicle housing and concrete floors, foot disorders are a major welfare problem with serious economic consequences. On average, foot disorders cost €53 per cow per year, of which indirect cost factors are the main cause. Subclinical foot disorders, which are the foot disorders not recognised by dairy farmers, account for 50% of the total welfare impact and 32% of the total costs. The consequences of foot disorders can be difficult to observe and more insight into these consequences is helpful in stimulating actions to improve dairy cow foot health. Digital dermatitis (DD), an infectious foot disorder, is the most serious foot disorder from both an economic and welfare perspective. The correlation between economics and animal welfare impact suggests that reducing the problem of foot disorders from an economic perspective will positively influence the welfare of dairy cows. Insight into economic and welfare consequences of the different foot disorders, including the association between them, can help make dairy farmers more aware and help with decision-making regarding measures to improve dairy cow foot health.

Assessing economic consequences of foot disorders in dairy cattle using a dynamic stochastic simulation model

Foot disorders are an important health problem in dairy cattle, in terms of economics and animal welfare. The incidence, severity, and duration of foot disorders account for their importance. Prevalence of both subclinical and clinical foot disorders is high. More insight into the economic consequences could increase awareness among dairy farmers and could be an incentive for them to take action on this problem of animal welfare. The objective of this research was to estimate the economic consequences of different types of foot disorders, both clinical and subclinical. A dynamic stochastic Monte Carlo simulation model was used, taking into account the different types of foot disorders. The economic consequences of the foot disorders modeled were costs due to milk production losses, culling, prolonged calving interval, labor of the dairy farmer and the foot trimmer, visits of a veterinarian, treatment, and discarded milk. Under the milk quota system in the Netherlands, costs due to foot disorders for a default farm with 65 cows averaged $4,899 per year (ranging from $3,217 to $7,001), an annual loss of $75 per cow. This calculation implies that the costs due to foot disorders are more substantial than farmers might think. The costs of subclinical foot disorders account for 32% of all costs due to foot disorders. The costs due to foot disorders that are present without treatment or detection by the farmer are considerable. This finding implies that farmers might underestimate the benefits of taking action earlier and more thoroughly. A clinical foot disorder costs, on average, $95, and a subclinical foot disorder $18. The highest costs classified by foot disorder were those due to digital dermatitis, which has a high incidence and relatively high clinical prevalence. The highest costs classified by cost factor were those due to milk production losses and culling. Sensitivity analysis showed that variables regarding milk production were important for economic costs due to foot disorders. Furthermore, the probability of getting a foot disorder and probability of cure were important for estimating the costs due to foot disorders. Farmer awareness concerning dairy cow foot health and taking action more thoroughly, therefore, could reduce the economic consequences and improve welfare simultaneously.

Hypoglycemic activity of dried extracts of Bauhinia forficata Link

Leaves of the pantropical genus Bauhinia (Fabaceae) are known popularly as cow's foot, due to their unique characteristic bilobed aspect. The species Bauhinia forficata (Brazilian Orchid-tree) is widely used in folk medicine as an antidiabetic. The present work investigates the hypoglycemic activity of the dried extracts of Bauhinia forficata leaves in vivo, as well as the influence of the drying and granulation processes on this activity. The fluid extract was dried to generate oven-dried (ODE), spray-dried (SDE) and wet granulation (WGE) extracts, with the aid of colloidal silicon dioxide and/or cellulose:lactose mixture. The dried extracts were characterized by spectrophotometric, chromatographic and photo microscopy image analysis. 200 mg/kg body wt., p.o. of each dried product were administered orally to male Wistar rats over 7 days old, for biomonitoring of the hypoglycemic activity profile. The effect of the extracts was studied in STZ-induced diabetic rats. After 7 days of treatment, fasting glucose was determined, and the livers were removed, dried on tissue paper, weighed, and stored at -20 degrees C to estimate hepatic glycogen. Our results show that spray-drying or oven-drying processes applied to B. forficata extracts did not significantly alter its flavonoid profile or its hypoglycemic activity. Indeed, the dried extracts of B. forficata act differently from glibenclamide. Despite the lower active content in WGE, because of the higher concentration of adjuvants, the use of the granulation process improved the manufacturing properties of the ODE, making this material more appropriate for use in tablets or capsules.

Determining the genotoxicity of an aqueous infusion of Bauhinia monandra leaves

Bauhinia monandra, commonly known as "cow's-foot", is native from Asia and widely used all over the world to treat a variety of illnesses, in particular diabetes. The high usage of the plant in Brazil and to fulfill the need of medicinal plant regulation by the Ministry of Public Health, we aimed at determining the genotoxicity, cytotoxicity and mutagenicity of an aqueous infusion from B. monandra leaves. The results were correlated to the chemical compounds found after phytochemical selection. Tests were performed in an in vitro system with plasmid DNA, in the presence and absence of exonuclease III, and in vivo system employing prokaryotic (transformation into competent DH10B bacteria) and eukaryotic (Allium cepa) assays. The infusion concentrations were 0.8 µg/µL, 4 µg/µL, 20 µg/µL and 100 µg/µL. The infusion concentrations did not cause mutagenicity or cytotoxicity, however the highest concentrations were able to induce breaks in DNA phosphodiester bonds and form abasic sites, an effect suggested by the presence of phenolic hydroxyls. The results revealed risks and benefits of plant extracts for therapeutic use and their effect on genetic integrity, especially when commonly employed as a hypoglycemic.

Evaluation of endovenous radiofrequency ablation and laser therapy with endoluminal optical coherence tomography in an ex vivo model

This study evaluated the ability of endovascular optical coherence tomography (eOCT) to detect qualitative tissue alteration and quantitative changes of vein wall thickness and vein lumen diameter comparing endovenous radiofrequency ablation (RFA) and endovenous laser therapy (ELT) in an established ex vivo model. Endoluminal eOCT was performed by means of a new prototype rotating system (System M1, LightLab Imaging Inc, Boston, Mass) with automatic pullback of 1 mm/s. In the course of an eOCT examination of a 50-mm vein segment, 264 electronic cross section images with a spatial resolution of 15 to 20 mum are acquired. The eOCT scans were performed before and after treatment of each of 13 treated vein segments and of six control vein segments. Thirteen subcutaneous cow foot veins were reperfused in situ, and the defined 50-mm vein segments in the study were treated with RFA (n = 2) and ELT (n = 11). RFA followed the clinical VNUS-Closure protocol (VNUS Medical Technologies, San Jose, Calif) using a 6F 60-mm Closure-Plus catheter. ELT was performed using light of lambda = 980 nm with a laser power of 3 (n = 2), 5 (n = 2), and 7 W (n = 4) with a paced pullback protocol with laser irradiation for 1.5 seconds every 3 mm, resulting in linear endovenous energy densities (LEED) of 15, 25, and 35 J/cm. Using 11 W (n = 3) with a continuous pullback protocol at 3 mm/s resulted in a LEED of 36.5 J/cm. Ten histologic cross sections of each treated and control vein segment were correlated with the corresponding eOCT cross sections to evaluate qualitative representation of vein wall layers and tissue alterations such as ablation and vein wall perforation. In addition, 26 eOCT cross sections of every treated vein segment before and after treatment and every control vein segment were analyzed to calculate quantitative changes in media thickness and vein lumen diameter. In all specimens, qualitative analysis with eOCT demonstrated a clear match with histologic cross sections. A symmetrical, complete, circular disintegration of intima and media structures, without any transmural tissue defects, was shown after RFA. Pronounced semicircular tissue ablations (3 to 14 per 50 mm) and complete vessel wall perforations (0 to 16 per 50 mm) were detected after ELT. The quantitative analysis demonstrated a significant (P < .0001) increase in intima-media thickness after RFA (37.8% to 66.7%) and ELT (11.1% to 45.7%). A significant (P < .0001) reduction of vessel lumen diameter (36.3% to 42.2%) was found after RFA. Owing to the limited number of treated vein segments and inhomogeneous baseline vein lumen diameters, no linear correlation between laser energy level and effects on tissue such as ablation/perforation, media thickening, or vein lumen diameter could be identified. In our ex vivo cow foot model, eOCT is able to reproduce normal vein wall structures and endovenous acute thermal alterations, such as tissue ablation and vessel wall perforations. Endovenous eOCT images can also be analyzed quantitatively to measure media thickness or vein lumen diameter. Endovascular OCT could become a valuable alternative tool for morphologic investigation of tissue alterations after endovenous thermal procedures.

Identifying and preventing pain in animals

Animals are routinely subjected to painful procedures, such as tail docking for puppies, castration for piglets, dehorning for dairy calves, and surgery for laboratory rats. Disease and injury, such as tumours in mice and sole ulcers on the feet of dairy cows, may also cause pain. In this paper we describe some of the ways in which the pain that animals experience can be recognized and quantified. We also describe ways in which pain can be avoided or reduced, by reconsidering how procedures are performed and whether they are actually required. Ultimately, reducing the pain that animals experience will require scientific innovation paired with changed cultural values, and willingness to address regulatory, technological and economic constraints.